A Holistic Review of Thrombosis Covering Diagnosis, Conventional Treatment, Nutraceutical Prevention and Advanced Drug Delivery
Abstract
Thrombosis, or the formation of blood clots within blood vessels, is a serious medical condition that can lead to life-threatening complications. It is a complex process involving interactions between hemostatic, hemodynamic, and surface parameters. The risk factors for thrombosis include cancer, surgery, trauma, and genetic conditions. According to research, cancer patients are at a higher risk of developing thrombosis, with venous thromboembolism being the second most common cause of death in these patients. Understanding the causes, diagnosis, and treatment options for thrombosis is crucial for preventing and managing this condition. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge on thrombosis, including its pathophysiology, risk factors, diagnostic tools, and treatment.
Keywords: Thrombosis, Blood clots, Hemostasis, Thrombolytic therapy, Anticoagulation, Cardiovascular disease
Keywords:
Thrombosis, Blood clots, Hemostasis, Thrombolytic therapy, Anticoagulation, Cardiovascular diseaseDOI
https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v15i11.7448References
1. Gailani D, Gruber A. Targeting factor XI and factor XIa to prevent thrombosis. Blood. 2024 Apr 11;143(15):1465-1475. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2023020722 PMid:38142404 PMCid:PMC11033593
2. Burton AG, Jandrey KE. Use of Thromboelastography in Clinical Practice. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2020;50(6):1397-1409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2020.08.001 PMid:32981595
3. Gündüz S, Kalçık M, Gürsoy MO, Güner A, Özkan M. Diagnosis, treatment & management of prosthetic valve thrombosis: the key considerations. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2020;17(3):209-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2020.1733972 PMid:32085683
4. Morais MB, Aguiar de Sousa D. Pathophysiology and Management of Cerebral Venous Thrombosis. Hamostaseologie. 2025 Aug;45(4):324-334. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2518-9103 PMid:40199511
5. Jain S, Buttar HS, Chintameneni M, Kaur G. Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases with Anti-Inflammatory and Anti- Oxidant Nutraceuticals and Herbal Products: An Overview of Pre-Clinical and Clinical Studies. Recent Pat Inflamm Allergy Drug Discov. 2018;12(2):145-157. https://doi.org/10.2174/1872213X12666180815144803 PMid:30109827
6. Hassanpour S, Kim HJ, Saadati A, Tebon P, Xue C, van den Dolder FW, Thakor J, Baradaran B, Mosafer J, Baghbanzadeh A, de Barros NR, Hashemzaei M, Lee KJ, Lee J, Zhang S, Sun W, Cho HJ, Ahadian S, Ashammakhi N, Dokmeci MR, Mokhtarzadeh A, Khademhosseini A. Thrombolytic Agents: Nanocarriers in Controlled Release. Small. 2020 Oct;16(40):e2001647. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202001647 PMid:32790000 PMCid:PMC7702193
7. Mühlberg KS. Diagnosis and Therapy of Visceral Vein Thrombosis: An Update Based on the Revised AWMF S2k Guideline. Hamostaseologie. 2024 Apr;44(2):135-142. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2178-6670 PMid:37992729
8. Ju C, Li X, Gadani S, Kapoor B, Partovi S. Portal Vein Thrombosis: Diagnosis and Endovascular Management. Rofo. 2022 Feb;194(2):169-180. English. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1642-0990 PMid:34649289
9. Intagliata NM, Caldwell SH, Tripodi A. Diagnosis, Development, and Treatment of Portal Vein Thrombosis in Patients With and Without Cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 2019 May;156(6):1582-1599.e1. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2019.01.265 PMid:30771355
10. Kim AS, Khorana AA, McCrae KR. Mechanisms and biomarkers of cancer-associated thrombosis. Transl Res. 2020 Nov;225:33-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trsl.2020.06.012 PMid:32645431 PMCid:PMC8020882
11. Farge D, Le Maignan C, Doucet L, Frere C. Women, thrombosis, and cancer. Thromb Res. 2019 Sep;181 Suppl 1:S47-S53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0049-3848(19)30367-6 PMid:31477228
12. Fernandes CJ, Morinaga LTK, Alves JL Jr, Castro MA, Calderaro D, Jardim CVP, Souza R. Cancer-associated thrombosis: the when, how and why. Eur Respir Rev. 2019 Mar 27;28(151):180119. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0119-2018 PMid:30918022 PMCid:PMC9488553
13. Abou-Ismail MY, Citla Sridhar D, Nayak L. Estrogen and thrombosis: A bench to bedside review. Thromb Res. 2020 Aug;192:40-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2020.05.008 PMid:32450447 PMCid:PMC7341440
14. Gupta N, Zhao YY, Evans CE. The stimulation of thrombosis by hypoxia. Thromb Res. 2019 Sep;181:77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2019.07.013 PMid:31376606
15. Branchford BR, Carpenter SL. The Role of Inflammation in Venous Thromboembolism. Front Pediatr. 2018 May 23;6:142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2018.00142 PMid:29876337 PMCid:PMC5974100
16. Frank C, Ratchford EV, Moll S. Vascular Disease Patient Information Page: A guide for patients with newly diagnosed deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Vasc Med. 2023 Oct;28(5):481-486. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358863X231154756 PMid:37401771 PMCid:PMC10559639
17. Grover SP, Mackman N. Intrinsic Pathway of Coagulation and Thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2019 Mar;39(3):331-338. https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.118.312130 PMid:30700128 PMCid:PMC12578993
18. Navarrete S, Solar C, Tapia R, Pereira J, Fuentes E, Palomo I. Pathophysiology of deep vein thrombosis. Clin Exp Med. 2023 Jul;23(3):645-654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10238-022-00829-w PMid:35471714
19. Carnevale R, Sciarretta S, Valenti V, di Nonno F, Calvieri C, Nocella C, Frati G, Forte M, d'Amati G, Pignataro MG, Severino A, Cangemi R, Arrivi A, Dominici M, Mangieri E, Gaudio C, Tanzilli G, Violi F. Low-grade endotoxaemia enhances artery thrombus growth via Toll-like receptor 4: implication for myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2020 Sep 1;41(33):3156-3165. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz893 PMid:31898723
20. He Y, Wu Q. The Effect of Extracellular Vesicles on Thrombosis. J Cardiovasc Transl Res. 2023 Jun;16(3):682-697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12265-022-10342-w PMid:36441349 PMCid:PMC9707253
21. Van den Boom BP, Lisman T. Pathophysiology and management of bleeding and thrombosis in patients with liver disease. Int J Lab Hematol. 2022 Sep;44 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):79-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.13856 PMid:35446468 PMCid:PMC9540811
22. Brito-Dellan N, Tsoukalas N, Font C. Thrombosis, cancer, and COVID-19. Support Care Cancer. 2022 Oct;30(10):8491-8500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-022-07098-zm PMid:35567609 PMCid:PMC9106567
23. Schulman S, Makatsariya A, Khizroeva J, Bitsadze V, Kapanadze D. The Basic Principles of Pathophysiology of Venous Thrombosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2024 Oct 24;25(21):11447. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252111447 PMid:39519000 PMCid:PMC11547114
24. Tsoupras A, Lordan R, Zabetakis I. Thrombosis and COVID-19: The Potential Role of Nutrition. Front Nutr. 2020 Sep 25;7:583080. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.583080 PMid:33102511 PMCid:PMC7545367
25. Ranjan R, Ken-Dror G, Sharma P. Pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of cerebral venous thrombosis: A comprehensive review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2023 Dec 1;102(48):e36366. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000036366 PMid:38050259 PMCid:PMC10695550
26. Samridhi, Setia A, Mehata AK, Priya V, Pradhan A, Prasanna P, Mohan S, Muthu MS. Nanoparticles for Thrombus Diagnosis and Therapy: Emerging Trends in Thrombus-theranostics. Nanotheranostics. 2024 Jan 1;8(2):127-149. https://doi.org/10.7150/ntno.92184 PMid:38328614 PMCid:PMC10845253
27. Melillo E, Palmiero G, Ferro A, Mocavero PE, Monda V, Ascione L. Diagnosis and Management of Left Atrium Appendage Thrombosis in Atrial Fibrillation Patients Undergoing Cardioversion. Medicina (Kaunas). 2019 Aug 21;55(9):511. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina55090511 PMid:31438560 PMCid:PMC6780583
28. Su M, Dai Q, Chen C, Zeng Y, Chu C, Liu G. Nano-Medicine for Thrombosis: A Precise Diagnosis and Treatment Strategy. Nanomicro Lett. 2020 Apr 20;12(1):96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-020-00434-0 PMid:34138079 PMCid:PMC7770919
29. Shahinian JH, Chan V, Pislaru SV. Chronic thrombosis of bioprostheses: Diagnosis and management. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2022 May-Jun;72:15-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2022.06.008 PMid:35764124
30. Banning M. The role of omega-3-fatty acids in the prevention of cardiac events. Br J Nurs. 2005 May 12-25;14(9):503-8. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2005.14.9.18075 PMid:15924000
31. Chakrabarti S, Freedman JE. Review: Nutriceuticals as antithrombotic agents. Cardiovasc Ther. 2010 Aug;28(4):227-35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-5922.2010.00161.x PMid:20553290
32. Caffrey C, Leamy A, O'Sullivan E, Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Nasopoulou C. Cardiovascular Diseases and Marine Oils: A Focus on Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Polar Lipids. Mar Drugs. 2023 Oct 24;21(11):549. https://doi.org/10.3390/md21110549 PMid:37999373 PMCid:PMC10672651
33. Khan J, Deb PK, Priya S, Medina KD, Devi R, Walode SG, Rudrapal M. Dietary Flavonoids: Cardioprotective Potential with Antioxidant Effects and Their Pharmacokinetic, Toxicological and Therapeutic Concerns. Molecules. 2021 Jun 30;26(13):4021. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26134021 PMid:34209338 PMCid:PMC8272101
34. Meegaswatte H, Speer K, McKune AJ, Naumovski N. Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals for the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Postmenopausal Women. Rev Cardiovasc Med. 2024 Dec 25;25(12):460. https://doi.org/10.31083/j.rcm2512460 PMid:39742223 PMCid:PMC11683719
35. Goldhaber SZ, Magnuson EA, Chinnakondepalli KM, Cohen DJ, Vedantham S. Catheter-directed thrombolysis for deep vein thrombosis: 2021 update. Vasc Med. 2021 Dec;26(6):662-669. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358863X211042930 PMid:34606385 PMCid:PMC9009765
36. Wu J, Zhang Y, Chen W, Hao T, Ran C, Zhou Y, Shen Y, You W, Wang T. Smart Thrombosis Care: The Rise of Closed-Loop Diagnosis-to-Treatment Nano Systems. Int J Nanomedicine. 2025 Jun 19;20:7851-7868. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S530884 PMid:40551977 PMCid:PMC12184709
37. Palazzolo JS, Westein E, Hagemeyer CE, Wang TY. Targeting Nanotechnologies for the Treatment of Thrombosis and Cardiovascular Disease. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2020 Jul;46(5):606-621. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0039-1697946 PMid:31614390
38. Manners N, Priya V, Mehata AK, Rawat M, Mohan S, Makeen HA, Albratty M, Albarrati A, Meraya AM, Muthu MS. Theranostic Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Cardiovascular and Related Diseases: Current Strategies and Future Perspectives. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2022 Apr 1;15(4):441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15040441 PMid:35455438 PMCid:PMC9029632
39. Russell P, Hagemeyer CE, Esser L, Voelcker NH. Theranostic nanoparticles for the management of thrombosis. Theranostics. 2022 Mar 14;12(6):2773-2800. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.70001 PMid:35401833 PMCid:PMC8965493
40. Zenych A, Fournier L, Chauvierre C. Nanomedicine progress in thrombolytic therapy. Biomaterials. 2020 Nov;258:120297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120297 PMid:32818824
41. Russell P, Esser L, Hagemeyer CE, Voelcker NH. The potential impact of nanomedicine on COVID-19-induced thrombosis. Nat Nanotechnol. 2023 Jan;18(1):11-22. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-022-01270-6 PMid:36536042
Published
Abstract Display: 176
PDF Downloads: 167
PDF Downloads: 55 How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2025 Mayur S. Jambhulkar, Pooja R. Hatwar , Ravindra L. Bakal

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).

.