Thyroid Hormones in the Human Body: A review
Abstract
Thyroid gland is an essential endocrine gland that is present in the human body. This review highlights the production, regulation and disease conditions of the thyroid hormones. The thyroid gland is controlled with the help of hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that is present in the brain. The production of thyroid hormones involves five main steps such synthesis of thyroglobulin (TG), iodide uptake, iodination of thyroglobulin, storage and release. The two important hormones produced by the thyroid gland are Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine(T3). These two hormones are iodine containing derivatives. Deficiency of iodine in the body results in the reduction of T3 and T4 production. Excess and deficiency of these two hormones result in the major diseases like Hyper and Hypothyroidism. The synthetic forms of Thyroxine(T4) and Triiodothyronine(T3) used in the Pharmaceutical field are Levothyroxine and Liothyronine. Women are most commonly prone to these thyroid diseases comparatively to men. Undiagnosed disease conditions may become fatal. Levothyroxine therapy is commonly used for thyroidism which is a similar synthetic thyroid hormone. Also natural thyroid hormones that are obtained from the dried thyroid glands of animals are available. Thyroid function test and the measurement of T3, T4 plasma level becomes essential for the identification and regular maintenance of thyroid hormones in the body and human well-being.Keywords:
Thyroid gland, Thyroxine(T4), Triiodothyronine(T3), Levothyroxine, LiothyronineDOI
https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i5.5039References
M J. Thyroid Disorders during Pregnancy. Int J Nurs Educ Res. 2020 Jul 30; 8(3):391-3. https://doi.org/10.5958/2454-2660.2020.00084.8
Sembulingam K, Sembulingam P, Sixth edition, Essentials of medical physiology. 2012. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp/books/11696_42
Stathatos N. Anatomy and Physiology of the Thyroid Gland. In: Luster M, Duntas LH, Wartofsky L, editors. The Thyroid and Its Diseases: A Comprehensive Guide for the Clinician [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019; p. 3-12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72102-6_1
Kapadia KB, Shah JS, Bhatt PA. Interlinking Between Altered Thyroid State and Development of Insulin Resistance: A Review. Res J Pharmacol Pharmacodyn. 2011 Oct 28; 3(5):234-40.
Mansourian AR. Metabolic pathways of tetraidothyronine and triidothyronine production by thyroid gland: a review of articles. Pak J Biol Sci. 2011 Jan 1; 14(1):1-12. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2011.1.12
Danzi S, Klein I. Thyroid hormone and blood pressure regulation. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2003 Dec 1; 5(6):513-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-003-0060-7
Bhor RJ, Damdhar H, Kokate G, Salve M, Andhale S. A Review on Sign and Symptoms of Graves's Diseases as Thyroidal Diseases and Its Treatment with Anti Thyroidal Drug. Res J Pharm Technol. 2016 Nov 28; 9(11):2027-33. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2016.00414.5
Textbook of Physiology, R. Chandramouli, Second eition, 2003.
S D, Gangopadhyay S, S PK, Sarkar G. Serum creatinine and eGFR are affected in female hypothyroid patients with poor Thyroid control. Asian J Pharm Technol. 2020 Nov 18; 10(4):241-4. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-5713.2020.00040.9
John AM, Roy A, Mohamed A, John D, John J, Lakshmi J. A Study to assess the effectiveness of Structured Teaching Programme on knowledge regarding thyroid problems among adolescent girls. Int J Adv Nurs Manag. 2019 Aug 19; 7(3):201-5. https://doi.org/10.5958/2454-2652.2019.00047.7
Yen PM. Physiological and Molecular Basis of Thyroid Hormone Action. Physiol Rev. 2001 Jul 1; 81(3):1097-142. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.2001.81.3.1097
Uduak OA, Ani EJ, Etoh ECI, Macstephen AO. Comparative effect of Citrus sinensis and carbimazole on serum T4, T3 and TSH levels. Niger Med J J Niger Med Assoc. 2014; 55(3):230-4. https://doi.org/10.4103/0300-1652.132049
Rousset B, Dupuy C, Miot F, Dumont J. Chapter 2 Thyroid Hormone Synthesis And Secretion. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, Chrousos G, de Herder WW, Dhatariya K, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285550/
Shahid MA, Ashraf MA, Sharma S. Physiology, Thyroid Hormone. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 [cited 2021 Jul 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500006/
Gereben B, Zavacki AM, Ribich S, Kim BW, Huang SA, Simonides WS, et al. Cellular and Molecular Basis of Deiodinase-Regulated Thyroid Hormone Signaling. Endocr Rev. 2008 Dec; 29(7):898-938. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2008-0019
St Germain DL, Galton VA, Hernandez A. Minireview: Defining the roles of the iodothyronine deiodinases: current concepts and challenges. Endocrinology. 2009 Mar; 150(3):1097-107. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2008-1588
Zimmermann MB, Boelaert K. Iodine deficiency and thyroid disorders. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015 Apr 1; 3(4):286-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70225-6
Rubio IGS, Medeiros-Neto G. Mutations of the thyroglobulin gene and its relevance to thyroid disorders. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2009 Oct; 16(5):373-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e32832ff218
Brent GA. Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action. J Clin Invest. 2012 Sep 4; 122(9):3035-43. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI60047
Larsen PR, Zavacki AM. Role of the Iodothyronine Deiodinases in the Physiology and Pathophysiology of Thyroid Hormone Action. Eur Thyroid J. 2012; 1(4):232-42. https://doi.org/10.1159/000343922
Textbook of medical physiology, Guyton and Hall, 12th edition, 2011.
Triiodothyronine (T3) Antibodies and Antigens - Creative Diagnostics [Internet]. [cited 2021 Jul 18]. Available from: https://www.creative-diagnostics.com/ivd-materials/products-triiodothyronine-t3-286.htm
Gelfand RA, Hutchinson-Williams KA, Bonde AA, Castellino P, Sherwin RS. Catabolic effects of thyroid hormone excess: the contribution of adrenergic activity to hypermetabolism and protein breakdown. Metabolism. 1987 Jun; 36(6):562-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0026-0495(87)90168-5
Grozinsky-Glasberg S, Fraser A, Nahshoni E, Weizman A, Leibovici L. Thyroxine-triiodothyronine combination therapy versus thyroxine monotherapy for clinical hypothyroidism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Jul; 91(7):2592-9. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-0448
Wiersinga WM. Thyroid hormone replacement therapy. Horm Res. 2001; 56 Suppl 1:74-81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000048140
Thokada SS, Kandregula H, Mugada V. Prevalence of Sub-Clinical Hypothyroidism among Diabetes Mellitus Patients with Vascular Complications. Asian J Res Pharm Sci. 2018 Nov 3; 8(4):253-7. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-5659.2018.00042.5
Anandkumar S, Chacko J, K TC, Usha M. Thyroid Disorder: An Overview. Res J Pharmacol Pharmacodyn. 2020 Feb 28; 12(1):1-4. https://doi.org/10.5958/2321-5836.2020.00001.4
Moura Neto A, Zantut-Wittmann DE. Abnormalities of Thyroid Hormone Metabolism during Systemic Illness: The Low T3 Syndrome in Different Clinical Settings. Int J Endocrinol. 2016 Oct 10; 2016:e2157583. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2157583
Understanding Medical Physiology, R. L. Biljami, 3rd Edition, 2004.
Antonelli A, Ferrari SM, Corrado A, Di Domenicantonio A, Fallahi P. Autoimmune thyroid disorders. Autoimmun Rev. 2015 Feb 1; 14(2):174-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2014.10.016
El-Shafie KT. CLINICAL PRESENTATION OF HYPOTHYROIDISM. J Fam Community Med. 2003; 10(1):55-8.
Maheshwari P, Mohan R, Shanmugarajan TS. KAP Study on Thyroid Disorders (Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism) in a Tertiary Care Hospital. Res J Pharm Technol. 2017 Jan 28; 10(1):41-3. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00010.5
Premawardhana LDKE, Lazarus JH. Management of thyroid disorders. Postgrad Med J. 2006 Sep; 82(971):552-8. https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2006.047290
Samuel AR, Devi G. Geographical distribution and occurrence of Endemic Goitre. Res J Pharm Technol. 2015 Aug 28; 8(8):973-8. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2015.00162.6
Nguyen QT, Lee EJ, Huang MG, Park YI, Khullar A, Plodkowski RA. Diagnosis and Treatment of Patients with Thyroid Cancer. Am Health Drug Benefits. 2015 Feb; 8(1):30-40.
De Leo S, Lee SY, Braverman LE. Hyperthyroidism. Lancet Lond Engl. 2016 Aug 27; 388(10047):906-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00278-6
Khankari RV, Pagar KR, Khandbahale SV, Sable PS. A Review on: Antithyroid Drug Therapy. Asian J Res Pharm Sci. 2019 Aug 30; 9(3):238-41. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-5659.2019.00037.7
Chaker L, Bianco AC, Jonklaas J, Peeters RP. Hypothyroidism. Lancet Lond Engl. 2017 Sep 23; 390(10101):1550-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30703-1
Unnikrishnan AG, Menon UV. Thyroid disorders in India: An epidemiological perspective. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jul; 15(Suppl2):S78-81. https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.83329
Canaris GJ, Tape TG, Wigton RS. Thyroid disease awareness is associated with high rates of identifying subjects with previously undiagnosed thyroid dysfunction. BMC Public Health. 2013 Apr 16; 13(1):351. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-351
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Thyroid Dysfunction in Older Adults in the Community | Scientific Reports [Internet].. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-49540-z
Dayan CM. Interpretation of thyroid function tests. The Lancet. 2001 Feb 24; 357(9256):619-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04060-5
Franklyn JA, Boelaert K. Thyrotoxicosis. Lancet Lond Engl. 2012 Mar 24; 379(9821):1155-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60782-4
Cappola AR, Fried LP, Arnold AM, Danese MD, Kuller LH, Burke GL, et al. Thyroid status, cardiovascular risk, and mortality in older adults. JAMA. 2006 Mar 1; 295(9):1033-41. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.9.1033
Basics of Medical Physiology, Second edition, D. Venkatesh, H.H. Sudhakar, 2011.
Published
Abstract Display: 2839 
PDF Downloads: 2094 PDF Downloads: 514 How to Cite
Issue
Section
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
How to Cite
.