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Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics

Open Access to Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

Copyright  © 2024 The  Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original author and source are credited

Open Access   Full Text Article                                                                                                                                                Review Article

A comprehensive analysis of Cestrum nocturnum: Its phytochemical composition, pharmacological applications, and toxicity profile in the context of traditional medicinal practices

Trilochan Satapathy ¹, Bhekhlal Banjare¹*, Himanshu Sahu² 

¹ Columbia Institute of Pharmacy, Raipur, 493111, Chhattisgarh, India

² RITEE Collage of Pharmacy Raipur, 492101, Chhattisgarh, India

 

 

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants remain a source of useful medicinal substances, utilized in both contemporary and traditional medicine. Plants are utilized in traditional medical systems worldwide, particularly in rural areas, to regulate, manage, and treat many human and animal illnesses¹. They are administered in the form of powders, extracts, decoctions, or infusions. There is a strong demand for precise and current information on the characteristics, applications, effectiveness, safety, and efficacy of botanical products due to the current global shift towards using natural treatments derived from plants. Multinational medicine corporations are actively searching the plant kingdom for physiologically active lead compounds².

The use of herbal medicine continues to be the primary form of healthcare for a significant portion of the world's population, particularly in developing nations. This is mainly due to financial constraints that prevent access to costly western medications and healthcare services. Additionally, traditional treatments are often preferred from an ethnic and spiritual standpoint³. Herbal remedies or plants are believed to have chemical components that are highly compatible with the human body, as they are naturally integrated into the biological processes of live plant life. For centuries, people have relied on natural remedies derived from plants to address various health conditions. Lately, there has been a surge in interest surrounding the utilization of plant-based wellness supplements for both preventing and treating illnesses. Medicinal plants have been a cornerstone of traditional medicine for centuries, providing effective treatments for various diseases and promoting overall well-being. Thus, there is ample potential to delve into novel methods for preventing and treating diseases through the use of medicinal plants⁴.

The Solanaceae family classifies the specific plant in question under various names such as Cestrum nocturnum, lady of the night, night-blooming jessamine, night-scented jessamine, night-scented cestrum, or poisonberry. Despite its West Indies origins, it has adapted to South Asia. Originating in America, people have extensively cultivated Cestrum nocturnum for its potent floral scent, which has spread to tropical regions worldwide, including the Pacific⁵. Its presence is particularly notable in numerous regions, with significant recognition across Mesoamerica. Formerly, the assumption was that this species was native solely to South America. The tropical Pacific region of the old world shows a broad distribution of this plant species, which thrives on multiple islands. Records indicate that this plant has primarily been cultivated for ornamental purposes in China and Singapore, and it is also popular for decorative use in India⁶. This comprehensive review article will present detailed insights into the phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity profile of Cestrum nocturnum, shedding light on its potential medicinal properties and cultural significance. Additionally, it will explore the potential for further research and development of this plant species in various regions around the world.

Plant Profile

Botanical Description

The night-blooming jasmine (Figure 1), scientifically known as Cestrum nocturnum, possesses a number of unique physical characteristics that distinguish it from other members of the Cestrum genus (Table 1). C. nocturnum stands out due to the unique structure of its epidermal cells³. Those on the abaxial surface of C. nocturnum have polygonal to irregular shapes, while those on the abaxial surface of C. diurnum, C. elegans, and C. parqui are irregular and have walls that curve away from the center. In addition, C. nocturnum stands out due to its hypostomatic leaves, a characteristic it shares with most Cestrum species, with the exception of C. parqui, which has amphistomatic leaves. C. nocturnum, like other species in the genus, possesses stomata that are anomocytic and anisocytic⁴. Additionally, C. elegans possesses diacytic stomata. Furthermore, C. nocturnum lacks trichomes and exhibits anomocytic stomata on the abaxial surface, a feature shared with Cestrum intermedium, another species within the same genus. The karyotype of the genus Cestrum stands out for its uniqueness⁶. The chromosome number of x = 8, along with its large size and complex heterochromatin patterns, are consistent features found throughout the genus, including C. nocturnum. In addition, the environmental adaptability of C. nocturnum and its wide distribution in warm to subtropical regions set it apart from other species in the genus. This information on the physical, chemical, and anatomical traits of C. nocturnum is crucial for accurately distinguishing it from other Cestrum species. It greatly aids in taxonomical classification and prevents any confusion or misidentification. 

 

 

Table 1: Botanical description of Cestrum nocturnum

Feature	Description
Common Name	Night-blooming Jasmine, Lady of the Night
Scientific Name	Cestrum nocturnum
Family	Solanaceae
Habit	Evergreen shrub
Height	2-4 meters
Leaves	Simple, alternate, oblong to lanceolate, 6-20 cm long, glossy green
Flowers	Small, tubular, greenish-white to creamy white, clustered in axillary or terminal cymes
Blooming Time	Nocturnal; flowers open at night
Fragrance	Strong, sweet fragrance, especially at night
Fruits	Berry, white or pale green, contains numerous seeds
Stem	Woody, slender, light brown to gray
Roots	Fibrous root system
Habitat	Prefers warm, tropical, and subtropical climates
Soil Preference	Well-drained, fertile soils; tolerant of a variety of soil types

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Plant of Cestrum nocturnum

 

Geographical description 

The night-blooming jasmine, commonly referred to as the queen of the night, is a flowering plant that originates from tropical areas in the Americas. It is distributed from Mexico and the West Indies to Brazil and Argentina. This plant has remarkable adaptability and thrives in diverse climatic conditions. It has been widely cultivated and developed in many regions around the globe, encompassing places characterized by warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical temperatures³. Cestrum nocturnum, a plant renowned for its remarkable adaptability, can flourish in a wide range of soil compositions, including nutrient-rich and well-drained soils as well as dry, sandy, or clay-based substrates. This species is extremely versatile and durable. Cestrum nocturnum is frequently encountered in its native habitat, flourishing in diverse surroundings such as mixed deciduous or evergreen woods, forest perimeters, and regions that have been disrupted, such as roadsides, abandoned lots, and agricultural clearings. It possesses the capacity to create dense and expansive thickets that can outperform and replace indigenous plant groups⁴. The Cestrum nocturnum plant has been imported and grown in several places worldwide, including the southern United States, the Mediterranean region, and sections of Asia and Africa. It is widely esteemed for its enchanting nocturnal blossoms and its capacity to function as an appealing plant for decorative, hedge, and landscaping uses. However, in some locations where it has been introduced, Cestrum nocturnum has demonstrated the capacity to become an invasive species, posing a threat to local ecosystems and biodiversity, particularly in regions with similar climatic conditions to its original habitat (Table 1 )⁶.

Phytochemistry of Cestrum nocturnum

Night-blooming jasmine, scientifically known as Cestrum nocturnum, is a popular ornamental plant that has attracted considerable interest for its rich phytochemical composition and possible medicinal uses (Table 2).

The phytochemical composition of Cestrum nocturnum encompasses 1-acetyl D-erythritol, which has been identified in the leaves. This particular compound plays a role in the plant's pharmacological capabilities. By means of spectroscopic analyses, 1-acetyl D-erythritol, has been characterized and may exhibit bioactive attributes that warrant further exploration for potential medicinal uses⁷. The existence of this compound within Cestrum nocturnum underscores its chemical variability and implies that additional investigations into this botanical species may uncover new bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical advantages. Haggag's report highlights the diverse range of secondary metabolites found in Cestrum nocturnum, including alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and phenolic acids. The leaves of this plant are especially abundant in these compounds⁸. Cinnamic acid, luteolin, quercetin, and propyl gallate are a few phytochemicals that enhance the plant's pharmacological potential. Inayat et al. identified a new glycoside in Cestrum nocturnum. It is called 3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside-olean-12-en-28-oic acid and is in the oleanane class. The compound is a derivative of β-arabinopyranosyl, with a substitution at position 28 on the O atom. The structure is β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-2). The chemical is β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester, and it comes with two other compounds that have already been named: nocturnoside A and karativoside A. These chemicals have a high concentration of saponins and enhance the plant's pharmacological capabilities⁹. The glycoside, when isolated, has a bisdesmosidic character, suggesting its potential for bioactivity. Marwa et al. found that Cestrum nocturnum has unique phytochemicals, like cypermethrin and 3-butynyl-2,2,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane-5-methanol, that make it more useful as a medicine. These chemicals have a crucial role in the biological and pharmacological characteristics of C. Nocturnum ¹⁰. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used by Pratip et al. to look at compounds like ethyl citrate, phytol, 4-isobutylmorpholine, n-hexadecanoic acid, and α-amyrin¹¹. This finding has significant implications for pharmacology and presents new avenues for ethnopharmacological research. According to Ahmed et al., the composition of phytochemicals in one species of Cestrum includes nicotine, nornicotine, ursolic acid, vitamin D3, and its derivatives¹². The compounds analyzed exhibit a range of properties that enhance the plant's pharmacological potential, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and NF-κB inhibitory activities.

 

 

Table 2: Some key phytochemicals class and its specific identified in Cestrum nocturnum

Phytochemical Class	Specific Compounds
Saponins	Pennogenin tetraglycoside, nocturnoside A, karativoside A
Flavonoids	Flavonol glycosides, rutin, quercetin, kaempferol
Phenolic Compounds	Cinnamic acid, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid
Essential Oils	Linalool, benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol
Fatty Acids	(Specific compounds not widely reported)
Other	Oleanane-type glycosides

 

 

Ethnopharmacology of Cestrum nocturnum

Cestrum nocturnum, often known as night-blooming jasmine, is a shrub typically seen in gardens and is classified under the Solanaceae family. This plant has an extensive historical record of being utilized to address a diverse array of health issues. Recent research has focused on studying the compounds derived from Cestrum nocturnum, uncovering their potential medical characteristics and therapeutic uses. Phytochemical research has revealed that Cestrum nocturnum contains a diverse array of bioactive substances, including phenylethanoid glycosides, polysaccharides, lignans, and iridoids. The plant's extracts and components have demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological actions, including as neuroprotective, immune modulating, anti-inflammatory, liver protecting, and antioxidant capabilities (Figure 2).

 

 

Figure 2: Pictorial representation of pharmacological activity of Cestrum noctrunum

 

 

Ahmed et al. identified important pharmacological substances extracted from Cestrum nocturnum. These compounds include bioactive phytoconstituents that have a strong affinity for interacting with the catalytic locations of α-amylase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). These chemicals demonstrate the properties of being antioxidants, antidiabetic agents, and anti-Alzheimer's agents. The methanolic fraction of C. nocturnum leaf extract exhibited high antioxidant activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals, as well as antagonistic impacts on α-amylase and AChE functions¹².

Haggag reported that flavonoids are among the main pharmacological components extracted from Cestrum nocturnum. Quercetin has been researched for its anti-inflammatory properties, while kaempferol has demonstrated potential in the prevention of cancer. The existence of these biologically active substances in Cestrum nocturnum underscores its potential for therapeutic use in many health disorders⁸.

A new steroidal saponin, a flavonoid compound, and a triterpene saponin were found by Nasr et al. in the flowers of Cestrum elegans. These were found along with a previously known steroidal saponin. These compounds exhibited varying effects against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as demonstrated antifungal and antiviral properties¹³. Certain compounds demonstrated the most potent biological effects upon the hepatitis A virus, with antiviral activities of 34.3% and 25%, respectively, at a non-toxic dose of 1.56 µg/mL on the vero cell line.

A study by Valencia-Mejia et al. tested different substances from C. nocturnum against two types of fungi, F. solani and F. kuroshium, to see which ones were effective at killing them. The results showed that the crude extract, fractions, and a pure compound from C. nocturnum all exhibited significant antifungal activity. This study emphasizes the value of investigating the variety of plants in the evergreen montane cloud forest of Veracruz, Mexico, as a potential source of new antifungal compounds. It was found that pennogenin tetraglycoside, a steroidal saponin-type compound, was the main antifungal compound in C. nocturnum that killed F. kuroshium. This is the first report of the presence of this compound in C. nocturnum and its efficacy against the causal agent of Fusarium dieback. It highlights the possibility of herbal remedies in the search for biocontrol substances against phytopathogenic fungi¹⁴.

Marwa et al., extracted important insecticidal chemicals from Cestrum nocturnum, such as cytomethrin and 3-butynyl-2,2,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane-5-methanol. Cypermethrin is frequently employed as an insecticide, but 3-butynyl-2,2,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane-5-methanol exhibits promising medicinal potential. The presence of cytomethrin in these compounds gives them the potential to exterminate insects. Additionally, the inclusion of 3-butynyl-2,2,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane-5-methanol allows for the investigation of their therapeutic qualities in various scenarios¹⁵. 

Iguchi et al. conducted a comprehensive study on the chemical composition of the leaves of Cestrum newellii. As a result, they discovered eight previously unknown steroidal glycosides. These glycosides were categorized into four groups: spirostanol, furostanol, pseudofurostanol, and cholestane glycosides. Additionally, three known cholestane glycosides were also identified¹⁶. The individual chemical components extracted from Cestrum newellii were shown to be ineffective in causing the death of HL-60 human promyelocytic leukemia cells, as determined by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide test. This is despite the fact that the plant itself highly toxic.

Chaskar et al. identified many important pharmacological substances derived from Cestrum nocturnum, including ethyl citrate, phytol, 4-isobutylmorpholine, n-hexadecanoic acid, and α-amyrin. These molecules may have therapeutic benefits due to the presence of α-amyrin, a pentacyclic triterpene with diverse biological properties. These uses include repelling insects, eliminating germs, and perhaps exhibiting biological activity. The components isolated using the plant's methanol extract show potential for additional investigation into their distinct pharmacological advantages and uses¹¹.

The n-butanol part of Cestrum nocturnum flowers was studied by Deng Pan et al., who found important chemicals for medicine, such as fractions C4 and C5. These chemicals demonstrate substantial cytotoxicity against cancer cell lines while displaying minimal immune toxicity against T and B cells. They trigger programmed cell death in cancerous cells by inducing DNA damage and suppressing the activity of topoisomerase II¹⁷. 

Tyagi et al,. documented the presence of many isolated chemicals in Cestrum nocturnum, including saponin, alkaloid, tannin, amino acid, and carbohydrate. These substances were discovered in different botanical extracts. Saponin was detected in both water and ethanolic extracts; alkaloid was present in all extracts except for the hexane extract; tannin was identified in water, ethanol, and methanol extracts; amino acids were discovered in water and ethanolic extracts; and carbohydrates were detected in water and methanolic extracts. These chemicals are responsible for the plant's anticoagulant effects ¹⁸.

Reports say that Cestrum diurnum can effectively stop mice from licking their paws when they are exposed to carrageenan and formalin. This supports the traditional use of the plant to treat pain and inflammation. The results suggest that Cestrum diurnum might work by decreasing the amount of NF-κB p65 protein and/or stopping the activity of autacoids like histamine, serotonin, and prostaglandin ¹⁹. 

Kamboj observed that a hydroalcoholic extract obtained from Cestrum nocturnum successfully suppressed the function of α-amylase, with an IC₅₀ value of 45.9 μg. This suggests that it has the capacity to be employed as a highly effective medicine for diabetes. The study highlights the importance of natural inhibitors, namely those found in C. nocturnum, for managing post-meal hyperglycemia²⁰. It suggests that such inhibitors might be used as a substitute for powerful synthetic inhibitors since they have a safer profile.

Sahane et al., found that both the hydroalcoholic extract and saponin fraction of Cestrum nocturnum leaves raised the levels of many biochemical markers in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The histological analysis of the pancreas in diabetic rats revealed degenerative alterations in β-cells. However, these abnormalities were notably restored following administration with the leaf extract and saponin fraction ²¹. This suggests that the extract and fraction have the capacity to restore the functionality of islet cells.

Bhuskute et al., determined that both ethanolic and aqueous extracts derived from the leaves of Cestrum nocturnum demonstrate antianxiety and antidepressant properties in rodents. - In comparison to the aqueous extract, the ethanolic extract of Cestrum nocturnum leaves displayed a greater antianxiety and antidepressant effect²².

Dina et al., found that the essential oil of Cestrum diurnum L., obtained through steam distillation (SD), demonstrated potent antiviral effects against HCoV-229E, with an IC50 of 10.93 μg/mL. On the other hand, the essential oils obtained through microwave-assisted hydro-distillation (MAHD) and hydrodistillation (HD) showed moderate activity, with IC50 values of 119.9 and 148.2 μg/mL, respectively. Phytol, octadecyl acetate, and tricosane, three important parts of the essential oil, strongly attached to the coronavirus 3-CL (pro) protein in molecular docking experiments. In addition, when used at a dose of 50 μg/mL, all three essential oils decreased the levels of the inflammatory indicators NO, IL-6, and TNF-α. They also stopped the expression of IL-6 and TNF-α genes in RAW264.7 macrophage cell lines used in an LPS-induced inflammation model²³.

Nagar et al. observed that the ethanolic extract ointment of Cestrum nocturnum (EECN) includes phytoconstituents that enhance the body's natural healing process and may be utilized as an efficient agent for wound healing. The EECN ointment has significant efficacy in enhancing wound strength, accelerating epithelialization, enhancing tensile strength, and promoting the viability of collagen in the surrounding area of the wound. These findings imply that EECN ointment holds promise as a valuable therapy for wound healing ²⁴.

Toxicity profile of Cestrum nocturnum

Several studies suggest that different components of the plant have variable levels of toxicity. An instance of this may be seen with the ethanolic extract derived from the leaves of Cestrum nocturnum⁷. This extract exhibited a high level of toxicity against brine shrimp during the Brine Shrimp Lethality Test (BSLT). The LC₅₀ values, which varied depending on the dose, showed that the extract had lethal effects on both pests and bacteria²⁵. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that the n-butanol fractions extracted from the flowers of Cestrum nocturnum have the ability to eradicate cancer cell lines while exhibiting minimal immunological toxicity towards T and B lymphocytes²⁶. This implies that they have the potential to combat malignancies while minimizing negative impacts on the immune system²⁷. However, it is important to exercise caution, as certain species within the Cestrum genus, such as Cestrum diurnum, have been found to have harmful effects on cells. Some of these effects are strange things happening when cells divide and small nuclei forming in the root apical meristem cells of Allium cepa²⁸. This highlights the significance of exercising caution while utilizing herbal remedies derived from these plants. Cestrum nocturnum leaves have been shown to possess hypoglycemic characteristics, indicating their potential efficacy in treating diabetes in animal models²⁹. This indicates that they could possess medical properties, but it is crucial to thoroughly comprehend their pharmacological and toxicological characteristics. In summary, although Cestrum nocturnum shows potential in traditional medicine due to its many bioactivities, it is important to thoroughly assess its possible toxicity, especially when used in high concentrations or for extended periods, in order to assure safe therapeutic usage.

Traditional and Commercial uses of Cestrum nocturnum

Cestrum nocturnum, sometimes referred to as the night-blooming jasmine or 'Lady of the Night,' is a very adaptable plant that has been widely used for both traditional and commercial purposes in different areas. Native to the tropical Americas, this alluring plant has fascinated societies around, leading to its incorporation into mythology, medical traditions, and contemporary enterprises. A fascinating characteristic of the plant is its strong connection with folklore and traditional traditions, which are deeply ingrained. Cestrum nocturnum is revered and carries profound symbolic meaning in several cultures, frequently being integrated into religious rites, spiritual ceremonies, and medicinal treatments³⁰. The plant's flowering at night and its captivating scent have sparked stories and folklore, since it is highly respected for its magical attributes and believed healing abilities.

In addition to its cultural significance, Cestrum nocturnum has been widely used in traditional medicine, especially in underdeveloped areas. The plant's foliage, blossoms, and fruits have historically been employed to remedy a diverse array of afflictions, encompassing gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory illnesses, and dermatological troubles³¹. The plant has been integrated into herbal mixtures and applied topically in specific areas, demonstrating its adaptability and extensive understanding of its therapeutic capabilities.

Recently, Cestrum nocturnum has become increasingly popular in the cosmetic and fragrance sectors. The plant's alluring aroma emitted throughout the night has been extensively studied, with research emphasizing its potential for commercial utilization in the perfume and cosmetic industries. Moreover, the plant's abundant phytochemical composition, which includes flavonoids, terpenes, and other bioactive chemicals, has attracted the attention of the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical sectors. As a result, continuous research is being conducted to explore its possible medicinal uses¹⁸.

In addition to its economic value, the ecological importance of Cestrum nocturnum has also been acknowledged. This plant plays a crucial role in promoting local biodiversity and maintaining populations of pollinators, especially those that are active at night, such as moths²¹.

To summarize, the wide range of uses of Cestrum nocturnum, including both traditional and folkloric practices as well as modern commercial applications, underscores the plant's versatile importance. As research progresses, the distinctive characteristics and possibilities of Cestrum nocturnum are becoming increasingly clear. It is obvious that this plant is a fascinating and useful subject of study, with the potential for further integration into several sectors of human life and business.

CONCLUSION

The comprehensive findings from the extensive analysis of Cestrum nocturnum highlight the plant's varied significance in the realm of traditional medicine. The phytochemical analysis reveals a diverse array of biologically active chemicals, including alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids, which may contribute to the plant's potential medicinal applications. The pharmacological assessment highlights the plant's potential effects in various domains, such as neuroprotection, anti-epileptic activity, and analgesic qualities. In addition, the analysis of the toxicity profile emphasizes the need for cautious and regulated use of the plant, as it can lead to adverse effects. Understanding the complete range of Cestrum nocturnum's chemical makeup, medicinal uses, and safety profile allows us to appreciate its importance in traditional medicine and opens up avenues for further research and potential advancements in natural remedies. This plant's wide range of properties makes it an exciting prospect for future research and development in the pharmaceutical industry. It holds the potential to offer novel treatment options for a variety of health conditions.

Acknowledgements: NIL

Conflict of Interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest regarding this investigation.

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