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Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics

Open Access to Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

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Open Access  Full Text Article                                                                                                                                           Review Article

Indian Medicinal Plants with Multiple Pharmacological Efficacies: A Comprehensive Review

Harish Krishnan ¹, Sivasankaran Shanmugam Manoharan ¹, Manoharan Shanmugam ^2,* 

¹ PhD. Research Scholar, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608002, Tamil Nadu, India.

² Professor and Head, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608002, Tamil Nadu, India.

 

 

Introduction

Traditional medicinal plants are used to cure a variety of acute and chronic diseases without having a significant negative impact on human health. Medicinal plants are a gift from nature to humans that helps them live healthy and disease-free lives. The use of plant-based health products has dramatically expanded recently in both developed and developing nations, which has caused an exponential rise in the demand for herbal products globally. The remarkable natural resources of medicinal plants include a wide range of phytochemicals, including tannins, carotenoids, flavonoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, steroids, minerals, and vitamins as well as other essential nutrients. These phytochemicals have potent antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antiulcer, anti-hypertensive, antipyretic and other biological activities.¹ The WHO estimates that traditional medicine is used by around 80% of the world's population. Around the globe, more than 80,000 plants are used as medicines and the majority of them have been used historically for many years. Traditional medicinal plants are now receiving substantial attention from modern medical research or the healthcare treatment system.²

The Indian Traditional System of Medicine is among the oldest medical systems in the world and it has been fundamental in providing medical treatment to human civilization from its origin. India is the only country with independently recognized traditional medicine systems, including Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and homoeopathy (AYUSH). All of these systems use an integrated approach to therapy and their pharmacological modalities are based on natural substances derived from plants or animals. ³ In rural India, almost 80% of the population mainly depends on conventional medications. Around 45,000 medicinal plants are found in India, mainly in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the Eastern Himalayas. Around 3000 plants have been officially documented as having medicinal value, but traditional practitioners use more than 6000.⁴ These plants have been shown to have diverse pharmacological and biological activities.

The main goal of this review is to collect information about the therapeutic and pharmacological activities of forty Indian medicinal plants. The data presented in this review may be used as a guide to formulate new and effective medicinal drugs.

Materials and Methods

For this review work, informations have been collected from the various sources of publication vehicle, including Elsevier, SciFinder, Pubmed, Springer, Science Direct, Scirus, Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science and peer-reviewed journals.

Major Indian medicinal plants

Calotropis procera L.

Calotropis procera Linn is an Apocynaceae family mentioned in Ayurveda. It occurs commonly in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and China. Folk medicine uses the entire parts of the plant. Numerous pharmacological effects have been observed, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-angiogenic, anticancer, antidiabetic, analgesic, anthelmintic, antipyretic, hypolipidemic, cardiovascular, gastric, hepatic and renal protective, antidiarrheal, anticonvulsant and antifertility activities_­­­.⁵  This plant has been reported to have several active compounds including phenols, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, sugars, flavonoids, saponins, glycoside, cardenolides and steroids such as calotoxin, calotropin, calactin, caoutchouc, trypsin, syriogenin, uzarigenin, proceroside and uscharin.⁶ According to Yesminet al.,⁷aqueous, and methanolic extracts of C. procera have been reported to possess antibacterial activity against both gram-positive (S.epidermidis, S.aureus, S.pyogenes and S.saprophyticus) and gram-negative (P.shigelloides, S.dysenteriae, V.cholerae, S.flexneri, S.boydii, S.typhi, P.aeruginosa and S.sonnei) bacteria. Roy et al., ⁸ observed that daily oral dry latex at 100 and 400 mg/kg decreased blood sugar and increased hepatic glycogen contents dose-dependently. It also raised hepatic levels of endogenous antioxidants, including catalase, glutathione, and superoxide dismutase and decreased thiobarbituric acid reactive substance in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. According to Ahmad et al.,­­⁹C. procera extract administered to diabetic rats had significantly lower blood glucose levels than those in the control group. Oliveira et al., ¹⁰ observed that laticifer proteins derived from C.procera had selective cytotoxic effects on human cancer cell lines. In in vivo studies utilizing rats transplanted with sarcoma 180, laticifer proteins significantly decreased tumor growth (51.83%) and increased animal survival time. In a study carried out by Babu et al.,¹¹ the methanolic extract of C. procera roots has a significant antiinflammatory effect in albino Wistar rats against carrageenan-induced paw oedema and cotton pellet-induced granuloma. The latex of the leaves of C.procera is used to cure various diseases, including leucoderma, tinea capitis in children, rabies, fever, eczema, leprosy elephantiasis, asthma and rheumatism. The flowers contain flavonoids, which are used in the treatment of asthma, colds, catarrh, intestinal worms, tumors and inflammations.¹²

Ocimum basilicum L.

Ocimum basilicum L., often known as sweet basil, is a plant widely distributed in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climatic zones of India, West Asia, Africa, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and other nations. It belongs to the Lamiaceae family. Due to its widespread availability, this plant may be readily obtained and employed for its many protective uses in daily life. Numerous pharmacological actions of this plant including antimicrobial, insecticidal, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, anti-osteoporotic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, and immunomodulators have been well documented.¹³ According to Dasgupta et al.,¹⁴ O.basilicum extract has shown antioxidant properties by enhancing the status of antioxidant enzymes and significantly lowering lipid peroxidation. Significant amounts of rosmarinic acid are present in O.basilicum extracts, which is considered to be the reason for their antioxidant effects.¹⁵ The antioxidant effects are also due to its linoleic acid, methyl eugenol, methyl cinnamate,α-cadinol, estragole, α-bergamotene, anthocyanins and phenolic acids.¹⁶ According toMoghaddam et al.,¹⁷ and Issazadeh et al.,¹⁸ O.basilicum leaves essential oil showed strong antibacterial capabilities against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus as well as antifungal activity against A.niger, A. fumigatus, and P. chrysogenum. In research by Bayala et al.,¹⁹ the essential oil of O.basilicum showed antiinflammatory efficacy by inhibiting the lipoxygenase enzyme. The O.basilicum extract's antiinflammatory effect reduces the expression of genes for proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-β.Bae et al.,²⁰ reported that the O.basilicum essential oil has shown analgesic activity when tested in inflammatory pain model mice. The extract of O.basilicum has strong cancer preventive properties as it can stimulate drug detoxification enzymes, including glutathione S-transferase and DT-diaphorase.¹⁴ Abd El-Azim et al.,²¹ pointed out the presence of phenolic compounds in O.basilicum extracts which showed a potent cytotoxic impact on liver cancer (HEPG2) and colon cancer (HCT116) cell lines. Rehan et al., ²² reported that the methanolic extract of O.basilicum fractions was shown to promote apoptosis. This remarkable result may be attributable to the presence of epicatechin and cinnamic acid derivatives in these fractions. According to Akhtar et al.,²³ O.basilicum methanolic and aqueous extracts reduced the ulcer index observed in an aspirin-induced stomach ulcer in a rat model. Such prominent antiulcer action is mainly attributed to the presence of eugenol, linalool, anthocyanins, 1,8-cineone and methyl eugenol.

Terminalia arjuna L.

Terminalia arjuna (Family: Combretaceae) is one of the most well-known medicinal plants in indigenous systems of medicine for treating diseases. It has been used to treat anaemia, ulcers, cardiomyopathy, ischemic, myocardium necrosis, atherosclerosis, venereal and viral infection, hypercholesterolemia and hepatic failure. It also possesses antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiallergic, antitumoral, antifertility, and anti-HIV activities. Polyphenols, triterpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, minerals, sterols and amino acids (histidine, tyrosine, tryptophan and cysteine) are the major constituents of T.arjuna extracted from various organic solvents such as benzene, hexane, acetone, dichloromethane, chloroform, butanol, ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol and ether.^24-27 According to Aneja et al.,²⁸ reported that the leaves and bark extracts of T. arjuna have shown antimicrobial activity against pathogens that cause ear infections such as S.aureus,  P.mirabilis, P.aeruginosa, Acinetobacter sp., E.coli, and C.albicans. T. arjuna bark aqueous extract showed strong antimicrobial activity. Viswanatha et al., ²⁹ reported that the alcoholic extract of T.arjuna stem bark demonstrated potent antioxidant activity against DPPH, superoxide radicals scavenging assays and the lipid peroxidation assay. Gauthaman et al.,³⁰ showed that the dried bark of T.arjuna contains a high concentration of antioxidant compounds that prevent oxidative stress in rats with ischemic cardiac injury. Parmar et al., ³¹ showed that the bark extract of T. arjuna can prevent thyroid function, which lowers the fat levels in the heart and liver of albino rats. Ram et al., ³² reported that ethanolic plant extracts showed hypolipidemic activities. 

Gymnema sylvestre L.

The plant Gymnema sylvestre (Family: Asclepiadaceae) is found all over the globe. According to a literature review, the plant has several critical pharmacological properties, including antiinflammatory, anti-obesity, hypolipidemic, antibacterial, antioxidant, diuretic, hypoglycemic, and antihelmintic. It is used to treat many diseases like bronchitis, asthma, leucoderma, haemorrhoids, dyspepsia, constipation, jaundice, and cardiopathy.  G.sylvestre contains saponins, stigmasterol, gymnemic acid, quercetin, resins, albumin, chlorophyll, tartaric acid, butyric acid, anthraquinone, formic acid derivatives, inositol alkaloids, paraben, lignin, calcium oxalate, choline, betaine, and trimethylamine, Gurmarin, gymnemic acids anthraquinones, and their derivatives.^33-35 Li et al., ³⁶ showed that G. sylvestre significantly lowered blood glucose levels in Type II diabetic patients. Additionally, in diabetic patients, G. sylvestre decreased LDL levels, cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose. G. sylvestre can decrease cholesterol because it can inhibit pancreatic lipase activity. According to David et al., ³⁷ G.sylvestre inhibited the growth of S.aureus, B.cereus, E. coli, C.albicans, Candida kefy and Candida krusei. G.sylvestre leaf extract was used in the biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles, and these particles significantly inhibited the growth of Hep2 cells.³⁸ Agrawal et al., ³⁹ reported that G.sylvestre extract decreased tumor incidence and the total number of papillomas in the experimental model. Arun et al.,⁴⁰ pointed out that the gymnemic acid from G.sylvestre ethanolic leaf extract prevents prostaglandin production and ulcer formation. According to Ahirwal et al.,⁴¹ G.sylvestre methanolic extract showed a strong immunosuppressive effect by reducing the growth of CD3 and CD19 lymphocytes and by the production of the cytokines IL-2, IL-4 and interferon-γ.

Achyranthes aspera L.

Achyranthes aspera is an erect perennial plant in the Amaranthaceae family. The plant and its components have historically been used to treat several diseases, such as snake bites, renal dropsy, haemorrhoids, dysentery, asthma, skin eruptions, stimulating labour pain, nose bleeding, dilating blood vessels and diuretics. Many secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, essential oils, fatty acids and tannins, play an important role against many diseases. In particular, the presence of secondary metabolites such as oleanolic acid, achyranthine, spinasterol, ecdysterone, achyrantheric acid, apigenin, corrosolic acid, ursolic acid and betaine plays a significant role in exhibiting the diverse pharmacological and therapeutic effects, such as antiinflammatory, cerebro-protective, periodontitis, antiepileptic, anxiolytic, antidepressant, bronchodilator, anti-venom and hepato-protective activities. Achyranthine is a water-soluble alkaloid from A.aspera and has been shown to have blood vessel dilatation and hypotension effects.^42,43 Previous studies have shown that the saponins found in the seeds of A.aspera have a better capacity to scavenge ABTS free radicals.⁴⁴ Numerous studies revealed the A.aspera sensitivity to the antibacterial effects against B.subtilis, K.pneumoniae, M.luteus, P.aeuroginosa, S.aureus, E.coli, chloerasuis, and S.pyogenes and antifungal action against F.oxysporum, R.solani, S.rolfsii, Alternaria sp., S.cerevisae, C.albicans, A.nigricans, F.oxysporum, Candidia sp. and Penicillium sp.^45-47 According to Omidiani et al.,⁴⁸ study, the anticancer activity of A.aspera leaves, stem, and root using a variety of extracts (ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, and methanol extracts) demonstrated excellent cytotoxicity against HeLa cancer cells. Among all extracts, ethanolic extract demonstrated a strong anticancer effect. Anand et al.,⁴⁹ isolated three phytoconstituents (corrosolic acid, achyrantheric acid and ursolic acid) extracted from the root of A.aspera, which showed potent anticancer activity against HT-29 (colon cancer cell line). Vijayaraj et al.,⁵⁰ reported that oral administration of A.aspera seed extract reduced sugar levels in Streptozocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. A.aspera capacity to reduce cholesterol may be mediated by the rapid excretion of bile acids, which in turn decreases cholesterol absorption.⁵¹ The ethanolic leaves extract of A.aspera exhibited significant anti-inflammatory effect in carrageenan-induced paw oedema.⁵²

Vitex negundo L.

Vitex negundo is an aromatic plant from the Verbenaceae family. Many conventional medicinal systems, including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, employ it to treat many problems, such as arthritis, swellings, eyesores, headaches, catarrhal fever, dysmenorrhea, syphilitic skin disease and rheumatism. This plant has a wide variety of chemical components, including volatile oil, flavonoids, diterpenes, triterpenes, glycosides, sesquiterpenes, iridoid glycosides, lignan, and derivatives of stilbene. The extracts of V.negundo have a wide range of pharmacological effects, including antipyretic, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-arthritic, analgesic, antitumor, anti-amnesic, antitubercular, anxiolytic, nephroprotective, anti-HIV, antieosinophilic, and anti-snake venom.^53,54 Kulkarni et al.,⁵⁵ reported that the methanolic extract of V.negundo has shown potent antioxidant activity. Gangwar et al., ⁵⁶ investigated that the ethanolic root extract of V.negundo had a more significant antiinflammatory impact when tested on carrageenan-induced paw edoema. Singh et al.,⁵⁷ reported the antibacterial action of V.negundo when tested against harmful microbes such  E. coli, B. substilis, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, M. luteus, and C.albicans. Chitra et al.,⁵⁸ reported that increasing the dosage of ethanolic leaf extract of V.negundo had significant anticancer activity in Swiss albino mice with Dalton’s ascetic lymphoma. Janakiraman et al., ⁵⁹ studied the beneficial effect of methanolic extracts of V.negundo leaves on male albino rats with cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. The findings of this investigation demonstrated that V.negundo protected the rats against the harmful effects of cisplatin.

Andrographis paniculata L.

Andrographis paniculata, also known as Kalmegh, is a valuable plant belonging to the Acanthaceae family that has been traditionally utilized in India and Southeast Asia to treat several diseases. It contains various bioactive compounds, including diterpenoids, flavonoids, polyphenols, etc. Andrographolide and diterpene lactone is the primary active component of Andrographis paniculata.⁶⁰ A.paniculata contains rich source of 14-deoxy-11-oxoandrographolide,14 deoxy-11, 14 deoxyandrographolide, homoandrographolide, andrographosterol, andrographone, neoandrographolide, andrographane, andrographosterin, stigmesterol, andrograpanin, α-sitosterol, andrographin, dihydroxy-di-methoxyflavone and andrographolide.⁶¹ Studies have shown this plant possesses various pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, antidiabetic, anticancer, antihepatotoxic, cardiovascular, and immunomodulatory effects. It is utilized to treat urinary tract infections, cholera, the common cold, influenza, acidity, ulcers, dysentery, liver problems, gonorrhea, bites, and fertility problems.⁶² Researchers found that different extracts of the plant roots, leaves, and stems were effective against a variety of bacteria, including S.aureus, B.subtills, E.coli, M.smegmatis, P.aeruginosa, K.pneumoniae E.cloacae, P.vulgaris and S.typhimurium.⁶¹ According to Yu et al.,⁶³andrographolide from A.paniculata can stimulate glucose uptake and decrease plasma glucose in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Sheeja et al.,⁶⁴  research observed that a methanolic extract of A.paniculata reduced carrageenan-induced inflammation as compared to a control animal. Banerjee et al.,⁶⁵ found that A.paniculata compounds had immune-protective and antiviral properties. Mishra et al.,⁶⁶ observed A.paniculata methanolic extract showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium berghei, a parasite that causes malaria.

Boerhaavia diffusa L.

Boerhaavia diffusa, also known as Punarnava, is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Nyctaginaceae family. This plant possesses various pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antiproliferative, anticancerous, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, immunosuppressive, analgesic, antiestrogenic, antistress, adaptogenic, hepatoprotective, anticonvulsant and antifibrinolytic. India uses B. diffusa in Ayurveda and Arab nations in Unani medication to treat diabetes, kidney disease, heart tonic, stress, obesity, asthma, heartburn, stomach pain, inflammation, jaundice, splenomegaly, and congestive heart failure.⁶⁷  ß-sitosterol, punarnavine, liriodendrin, boerhavine, punarnavoside, arachidic acid, behenic acid and potassium nitrate are the main phytochemical components in the whole plant.⁶⁸ Umamaheswari et al.,⁶⁹ showed the antibacterial activity of B.diffusa leaves against the gram-positive (M. luteus, B. subtilis, S. aureus, and S. faecalis) and gram-negative (P.aeruginosa, E.coli, K.pneumoniae, S.typhii, P.vulgaris, S.flexneri, S.marcescens, and V.cholera) bacteria. Venkatesh et al.,⁷⁰ examined the antioxidant and liver-protecting effects of alcoholic and water extracts of B. diffusa against thioacetamide-induced hepatoprotective rats. These B.diffusa alcoholic and aqueous extracts protected the liver and neutralized free radicals dose-dependently. According to a report by Bharali et al.,⁷¹ the chemopreventive effect of B.diffusa was evaluated on male Swiss albino mice with DMBA-induced skin papillomas. The findings showed that B.diffusa extract might be helpful against tumors due to an increase in the activity of liver phase I and phase II system enzymes as well as antioxidant enzymes activities. Nisha et al.,⁷² investigated the antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects of the whole B.diffusa extract on Wistar rats with type 2 diabetes induced by STZ. This research showed that B.diffusa extracts effectively reduced diabetes and hyperlipidemia in rats.

Tribulus terrestris L.

Tribulus terrestris belongs to the Zygophyllaceae family and has long been used to cure various diseases in Indian and Chinese medicinal systems. The plant contains a wide range of chemical components likes terrestribisamide, tribulusterine,  N-p-coumaroyltyramine, 25R spirost-4-en-3,12-dione, terrestriamide, aurantiamide acetate, hecogenin, xanthosine, fatty acid ester, vanillin, ferulic acid, β-sitosterol, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, harmine, N-trans-cafeoylyramine and N-transcoumaroyltyramine.⁷³ T.terrestris has excellent pharmacological properties such as antibacterial, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, anticancer, diuretic, aphrodisiac, antiurolithic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, analgesic, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, larvicidal, anticariogenic, hypolipidemic, and cardiotonic activities.⁷⁴ Studies have shown that the aqueous and methanolic extracts of T. terrestris had effective antimicrobial activity against Klebsiella spp., E.coli, P.aerunginosa, S.typhi, E.faecalis and C.albicans.⁷⁵ Abdulqawi et al.,⁷⁶ found that an aqueous extract of T. terrestris fruit inhibited lipid peroxidation in rats using the ferric thiocyanate method. Oh et al.,⁷⁷ demonstrated that an ethanolic extract of T. terrestris inhibited the lipopolysaccharide-stimulated production of cyclooxygenase2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase in RAW264.7 cells. It also inhibited the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α and IL-4, in macrophage cell lines. Consequently, the ethanolic extract inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators and cytokines, which could be helpful for various inflammatory diseases. Samani et al.,⁷⁸  revealed the hypoglycemic and hypocholesterolemic effects of T.terrestris. According to Reshma et al.,⁷⁹ reported that the methanolic extract of T.terrestris fruits protected myocardial ischemia in both in vitro and in vivo models.

Morinda citrifolia L.

Morinda citrifolia (Family: Rubiaceae) is commonly called noni. It is traditionally used as a medicinal treatment for many problems, including fever, cough, skin disease, gastritis, respiratory infections, urinary and menstrual tract problems, diabetes, and venereal diseases. It has various pharmacological effects, including antibacterial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, anthelminthic, analgesic, antiinflammatory, and immunostimulant.⁸⁰ This plant fruit contains 90% water, and the dry matter is mostly soluble solids, proteins, and dietary fibres. The fruit's main vitamins are ascorbic acid and provitamin.⁸¹Jayaraman et al.,⁸² found that M.citrifolia fruit extracts were effective against  L.lactis, S.aureus, B.subtilis, S.thermophilus, P.aeruginosa, S.typhi, E.coli, T.mentagrophytes, V.harveyi, K.pneumonia, S.paratyphi A, S.flexneri, A.hydrophila, V.cholera, C.violaceum, E.faecalis, and Fusarium, Penicillium, Mucor and Rhizopus species. Algenstaedt et al.,⁸³concluded that the daily consumption of M.citrifolia fruit juice have the potential to regulate elevated blood sugar levels in patients with type 2 diabetes. M.citrifolia inhibited the growth of breast, colorectal and lung cancer cells.^84,85 Saminathan et al.,⁸⁶ reported that noni juice treatment increased the levels of antioxidant enzymes and significantly decreased lipid peroxidation levels in the N-methyl-N-nitrosourea(NMU) treated group as compared to the NMU alone treated group. Uma et al., ⁸⁷ evaluated noni juice's neuroprotective effects on scopolamine-induced memory loss rats. They suggested that noni juice may be a valuable therapeutic possibility for preventing or treating Alzheimer's disease.

Justicia adhatoda L.

J. adhatoda belongs to the Acanthaceae family, a well-known plant utilized in Ayurvedic and Unani remedies. It has been commonly used to treat fever, bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis, and cough. J.adhatoda contains many phytochemicals, such as quinazoline, vasicinone, 7-hydroxyvasicine, vasicinolone, 3-deoxyvasicine, vasicine, vasicol, vasicoline, adhatodine, adhvasinone, vasicinol, anisotine, hydroxypeganine, kaempferol, quercetin, vitamin C, amino acids, carotene, astragalin, apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, vitexin, behenic, sitosterol, arachidic, cerotic, lignoceric, linoleic, betaine, alkanes, minerals and carbohydrate.⁸⁸ Rashmi et al.,⁸⁹ reported the antimicrobial activity of methanolic leaf extracts of J.adhatoda against S.aureus, S.pyogenes, S.marcescens, K.pneumoniae, E.coli, P.aeruginosa, C.albicans, C.neoformans and A.flavus. The water extract has proven efficient against microbial flora isolated from gingivitis patients.⁹⁰According to Basit et al.,⁹¹ J. adhatoda enhanced the activities of antioxidants, while attenuating the production of malondialdehyde  and inducible nitric oxide synthase activities in Carrageenan-induced paw edema model. Kumar et al.,⁹² J.adhatoda leaf extract showed a potent anticancer effect in MCF-7 cells. Oral administration of ethanolic extract of J.adhatoda leaves showed significant reduction of blood glucose levels in alloxan-induced hyperglycemic rat models.⁹³ J. adhatoda exerted anti-asthmatic effects by directly stabilizing mast cells, inhibiting the enzymes lipoxygenase/cyclooxygenase, or reducing platelet-activating factor.⁹⁴ Shrivastava et al.,⁹⁵ found that the leaf powder of this plant had a significant antiulcer action in rats with ulcers induced by ethanol.

Mucuna pruriens L.

Mucuna pruriens belongs to the Fabaceae family. This plant is used in Ayurveda to treat several problems and diseases, including cough, dog and snake bite, madness, bone fractures, pain, pleuritic, scorpion sting, ringworm, sores and syphilis, constipation, oedema, fever, Parkinson's disease, tuberculosis and menstruation disorders. It has potent pharmacological properties like antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, anticholestrolemic and aphrodisiac effects. M. pruriens seeds contain high concentrations of L-DOPA. It also contains some other amino acids, glutathione, lecithin, gallic acid and beta sitosterol, dimethyl tryptamine (DMT), 5-hydroxy tryptamine(serotonin), bufotenine, nicotine, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-carboline.^96,97 Previous research has shown that M.pruriens methanol extract has potent antibacterial activity against B.cereus, P.syringae, S.aureus, E.carotovora, P.vulgaris, P.acruginosa, P. marginalis, and X.campestris. Furthermore, it shows a potent antifungal effect against F.oxysporum, C.lunata, R.solani, T.phaseolina, P.expansum and U.pomaydis. ⁹⁸ Kumar et al.,⁹⁹ reported that an ethyl acetate and methanolic extract of M. pruriens had a potent antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity due to its high phenolic content. Rachsee et al.,¹⁰⁰ observed that M. pruriens seed extract markedly reduced the production of inflammatory mediators in Lipopolysaccharide(LPS)-stimulated BV2 microglial cells, such as nitric oxide (NO), IL-1β, IL 6, and TNF-α. Seetharamaiah et al.,¹⁰¹ concluded that M.pruriens seed extract has shown antineoplastic effects against human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Bhaskar et al.,¹⁰²  examined the hypoglycemic effect of M.pruriens seed aqueous extract in both normal rats and diabetic rats induced by STZ. In normal rats and STZ-induced diabetic rats, the aqueous extract of M. pruriens seeds lowered blood glucose levels for two hours after injection of 100 and 200 mg/kg bw. 

Neolamarckia cadamba L.

Neolamarckia cadamba belongs to the Rubiaceae family and is a widely used Ayurvedic treatment for various diseases, such as diabetes, diarrhoea, fever, cough, inflammation, mouth ulcers, urinary tract infections, haemoptysis, wounds, vomiting and pimples. This plant has many biological active components like, alkaloids, glycoside, flavonoids, anthraquinone, tannins, phenols, terpenoids, secoiridoids, sterol, and anthocyanins. It also contains cadambagenic acid, quinovic acid, β- sitosterol, cadambine, cadamine, isocadamine, 3β-dihydrocadambine, 3β-isodihydrocadambine, aminocadambine A & B1, neolamarckines A & B, chlorogenic acid & B-sitosterol. It possesses antidiabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antihepatotoxic, antilipidemic, antimalarial, analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory.^103,104 According to Islam et al.,¹⁰⁴ the crude extract of N.cadamba exhibited strong antioxidant and free radicals scavenging activity. The different crude extracts such as ethanol, ethyl acetate, petroleum ether and aqueous of the stem bark of N.cadamba have shown potent antimicrobial activities against S. aureus, B. pumilus, P.aeruginosa, E. coli, B. subtilis, B. cereus, Y. enterocolitica, L. innocua and C.albicans.^105,106 Bussa et al.,¹⁰⁷ observed that oral administration of stem bark of ethanolic extract of 0.5 g/kg body weight exhibited a significantly reduced hyperglycemia in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Das et al.,¹⁰⁸ tested the hepatoprotective activity of hydroalcoholic extract of N.cadamba stem bark in Swiss albino mice using chloroform and iron overdose hepatotoxicity. The research demonstrated N.cadamba’s hepatoprotective effect in both hepatotoxicity models, and the activity is probably due to its potent antioxidant and iron-chelating properties.  Razali et al.,¹⁰⁹ reported that N.cadamba has shown anticancer properties in MCF-7 by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Hai-Lian Yua et al.,¹¹⁰ observed that the N.cadamba ethyl acetate fraction showed antiinflammatory effects by terminating the release of inflammatory mediators.

Physalis minima L.

Physalis minima, also known as Ground cherry, is an annual plant species in the Solanaceae family. It has anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, antidiabetic, analgesic, antiinflammatory, antipyretic, smooth muscle relaxing, and immune-boosting properties.Flavonoids, steroid alkaloids, sugars, catechol, ellagic acid, gallic acid, cardiac glycosides, catechins, cyclopentane, vitamin C, free amino acetamide, stearic acid, octadecanoic, and linoleic acids, palmitic acid are among the bioactive components of P.minima that are linked to health benefits. P.minima has a variety of folkloric applications, such as diuretic, purgative, restore flaccid breasts, kidney stone, earache, splenomegaly, snake and scorpion envenomation, bronchial asthma, diabetes, dysuria, and swellings, fever, digestive problems, and toothache.^111,112 It has shown antimicrobial activity against B. cereus, B. subtilis, E. aerogenes, Citrobacter sp., E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, and P. fluorescens.¹¹³ According to Khan et al.,¹¹⁴ study the crude chloroform and methanol fraction of the entire plant have considerable antipyretic, antiinflammatory and analgesic properties in experimental animals. The methanol, aqueous, ethyl acetate, acetone and chloroform extracts of P.minima leaves and stem efficiently scavenged free radicals and showed potent antioxidant activity.¹¹⁵ Sathish Kumar et al.,¹¹⁶ found that P.minima extract had strong alpha-glucosidase inhibitory action which could help to lower blood glucose levels after maltose administration to rats. According to Leong et al.,¹¹⁷ the chloroform extract of P. minima showed significant cytotoxic activities against the NCIH23 (human lung cancer) cell line after 24, 48, and 72 hours of incubation. Tammu et al.,¹¹⁸ discovered that P.minima leaf methanolic extract had potent antiulcer action in induced ulcer models.  Joseph et al.,¹¹⁹ reported that ethanolic extract of P.minima fruits prevented D-galactose-induced Alzheimer's disease in an experimental rat model. 

Asparagus racemosus L.

Asparagus racemosus belongs to the Liliaceae family and is mainly cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas of India. Various medicinal and therapeutic properties of this plant have been reported in traditional medicinal systems like Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, which include antibacterial, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antispasmodic, antiallergic, anti-neoplastic activities, anti-immunomodulatory, antipyretic, antimalarial, anti-leprotic, anti-abortifacient, antistress, ulcerogenic, anti-diarrhoeal, analgesic and hepatoprotective and enhances immune response. It is widely used in cancer, diabetes mellitus, kidney disorders, depression, oedema, chronic fevers, infertility, infection (bacterial or fungal) epilepsy, controlling cholesterol levels, liver cancer, increasing milk secretion in nursing mothers, stomach ulcers and regulating sexual behaviours. The main bioactive components found in the plant are steroid saponins (shatavarin I-VI and disogenin) and flavonoids (quercetin, kaepfrol, rutin, and hyperosides). Trace elements, including copper, zinc, potassium, manganese, calcium, cobalt and selenium, are present.^120,121 According to Kamat et al., ¹²² A.racemosus extract has shown protection against γ-radiation-induced membrane damage caused by free radicals in rat liver mitochondria. A.racemosus exhibited antibacterial and antifungal activity against E.coli, B.subtilis, S.sonnei, S.dysenteriae, V.cholerae, S.flexneri, S.typhimurium, S.typhi, P.putida, S.aureus and Candida.^123,124 Mitra et al.,¹²⁵ reported that shatavarins IV isolated from A.racemosus showed potent anticancer activity against MCF-7, A-498, and HT-29 cell lines. Mangal et al.,¹²⁶ research reported that the root of A.racemosus has more antiulcerogenic action than ranitidine hydrochloride. A.racemosus prevented the damage of stomach mucosa by inhibiting the release of gastric hydrochloric acid. Hannan et al.,¹²⁷ observed that ethanolic root extract of A.racemosus lowered blood glucose levels in rats. Ahmad et al.,¹²⁸ reported that the oral administration of methanolic extract of A.racemosus root protected rats from lipopolysaccharide-induced liver injury.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1: Pharmacological and therapeutic activities of important Indian medicinal plants.

S. no	Plant name	Family	Pharmacological &therapeutic activities	Ref.
1.	Curcuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiallergic, antiseptic, anticarcinogenic and antidiabetic activities. It also improves digestion, dissolves gallstones, and prevents Alzheimer's disease.	[129]
2.	Ocimum sanctum	Lamiaceae	Antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antitussive, antipyretic, antioxidant and anti-arthritic properties. It is also used to treat malaria, heart disease, asthma, hepatitis, tuberculosis, snakebite antidote, and genitourinary disorders.	[130]
3.	Azadirachta indica	Meliaceae	Antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antifertility antimalarial and neuroprotective properties. It is also used to treat rheumatism, asthma, fever, worm tuberculosis, diarrhoea, jaundice, dysentery, promote healing, measles, smallpox, inflamed gums, and urinary diseases.	[131]
4.	Abutilon indicum	Malvaceae	Antibacterial, antioxidant, anticancer, antiasthmatic, antidiabetic and hepatoprotective properties. It is also used for toothache and in treating gonorrhoea.	[132]
5.	Aegle marmelos	Rutaceae	Antihyperglycemic, antidyslipidemic, antibacterial, antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties. It is also used to treat jaundice, fever, asthma, and Alzheimer's disease.	[133]
6.	Averrhoa bilimbi	Oxalidaceae	Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, anticoagulant activities and used to treat diarrhoea, hepatitis, bilious colic, whooping, scurvy, fever, obesity, cough, and hypertension.	[134]
7.	Mentha piperita	Lamiaceae	It possesses antimicrobial, antioxidant, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, anticancer, anti-parasitic, antidiarrheal, and antitussive properties. It is also used to treat diarrhoea, gum problems, hyperacidity, anemia, bronchitis, Irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn's disease, bad breath, tuberculosis, eczema, acne, anxiety, and gallbladder and liver diseases.	[135]
8.	Allium sativum	Amaryllidaceae	It has antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, cardioprotective and anti-hypertensive activities.	[136]
9.	Carica papaya	Caricaceae	Wound healing, nephro-protective, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antimalarial, anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antidiabetic and analgesic properties. It is also used to prevent dengue fever, menstrual pain, skin problems, arthritis and dyspepsia.	[137]
10.	Valeriana wallichii	Valerianceae	Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects.	[138]
11.	Cuminum cyminum	Apiaceae	Antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anti-platelet, antidiabetic, anticancer, hypotensive, bronchodilatory, anti-amyloidogenic and antiosteoporotic properties. It is also used to treat jaundice, lung diseases, nosebleeds, menstrual pains, diarrhea, and digestive problems, stimulates saliva production, bile excretion, increases breast milk production, used in menstrual cramps, and treats insomnia and fever.	[139]
12.	Mentha spicata	Lamiaceae	Antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antigenotoxic, potential and antiandrogenic activities. It is also used to treat asthma and blood dysentery, and improve memory and digestion.	[140]
13.	Nigella sativa	Ranunculaceae	Antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antihyperlipidemic, anti-hypertensive, antidiabetic, gastro-protective, wound healing, antioxidant and analgesic activities. It is also used to treat respiratory, digestive tract, kidney, liver, and cardiovascular-related diseases, as well as asthma; externally, its oil is used as an antiseptic and anaesthetic.	[141]
14	Senna auriculata	Fabaceae	Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antipyretic and antihyperglycemic activities. It is an effective inhibitor of 𝛼glucosidase enzyme properties.	[142]
15.	Citrus limon	Rutaceae	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antipyretic, diuretic, and antiulcer activities. It is also used to treat fever, scurvy, urinary diseases, liver disorders, and high blood pressure.	[143]
16.	Solanum surattense	Solanaceae	Antioxidant, anti-androgenic, hypocholesterolemic, hemolytic, anticancer, antibronchitic, antiischaemic and antidiabetic activities. It is widely used to treat cardiovascular diseases.	[144]
17.	Clerodendrum     phlomidis	Lamiaceae	Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial and properties. It is also used to treat nervous disorder, rheumatism, urinary problems, asthma, coughs, elephantiasis, febrifuge, venereal infections and malaria.	[145]
18.	Syzygium cumini	Myrtaceae	Antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antihyperlipidaemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antiulcer, antiarthritic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, neuropsychopharmacological, nephroprotective and antidiarrhoeal activities.	[146]
19.	Datura metel	Solanaceae	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antiiabetics, anticancer, antiinflammatory and hypoglycemic activities. It is also used to treat psoriasis, skin ulcers, bronchial asthma, cough, convulsion, diarrhoea and chronic bronchitis.	[147]
20.	Heliotropium indicum	Boraginaceae	Antiinflammatory, antioxidants, antitumor, antiulcer, antifertility, analgesic, diuretics and antimicrobial properties. It is also used to treat skin infections, stomach problems, poisonous animal bites, nervous disorders, cure wounds, eye problems, malaria, kidney stones and gum and worm infections.	[148]
21.	Trigonella foenum-graecum	Fabaceae	Antioxidant, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antiulcer, antimicrobial, and antiinflammatory activities. It is also used to reduce menstrual cramps, treat sexual problems, dysentery, stomach disturbances, respiratory infections, fever and hormonal disorders	[149]
22.	Murraya koenigii	Rutaceae	Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, antitumor, neuro-protective, anticancer, antimicrobial, antidiarrheal, gastro-protective and antidepressant properties. It is also used to treat anemia, respiratory problems, eye vision problems, toothache, hyperlipidemia and nausea.	[150]
23.	Withania somnifera	Solanaceae	Antidiabetic, antiarthritic, analogstic, neuro-protective, antitumor, antiulcer, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. It is also used to treat Parkinson's disease, bronchial asthma, chronic fever, dysentery, insect bites, gastric, cardiovascular, hepatic disorders, nervous exhaustion, insomnia, male infertility, and fibromyalgia.	[151]
24.	Moringa olifera	Moringaceae	Antioxidants, cardio-protective, anti-proliferation, hepatoprotective, hypotension, hypolipidemic, antiinflammatory and antimicrobial activities. It is also used to treat ear and eye infections, toothache, cold, HIV, typhoid, malaria, indigestion, diarrhoea, skin diseases and snake bite.	[152]
25.	Aloe barbadensis	Asphodelaceae	Angiogenic, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. It is also used to treat skin injuries.	[153]

 

 

 

Conclusion

The present review thus explores the medicinal properties of some important medicinal plants that are used in Indian traditional medicine. The present review opens the avenue for researchers to scientifically validate these medicinal plants as promising candidates for the treatment of various ailments.

Conflict of interest 

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

 

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