Available online on 15.04.2025 at http://jddtonline.info

Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics

Open Access to Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

Copyright  © 2025 The   Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original author and source are credited

Open Access Full Text Article                                                        Review Article

Nanoparticles (NPs) Based Drug Delivery System: An Inspiring Therapeutic Strategy for Cancer Therapy and Their Future Prospects

Isani Dutta *¹, Atibur Rahaman ², Suryavardhan Singh ³, Nandlal Kumar ⁴, Mayank Kumar Tiwari ⁵

¹ Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmaceutics, DmbH Institute of Medical Science, Hooghly, West Bengal, India.

² Assistant Professor, DmbH Institute of Medical Science, Hooghly, West Bengal, India.

³ Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacy Practice, ISF College of Pharmacy (ISFCP), Moga, GT Road, 142001, Punjab, India.

⁴ UG Scholar, Nims College of Paramedical Technology, Nims University, Rajasthan, Jaipur, 303121, India.

⁵ UG Scholar, NIMS University Rajasthan, Jaipur, 303121, India.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

Targeted drug delivery involves directing therapeutic agents to accumulate at the desired site. Combining therapeutic drugs with nanoparticles and designing suitable targeting routes is a potential strategy to deliver many molecules to specific sites in the body. To achieve high targeting efficacy, the DDS must be retained in the physiological system for a suitable amount of time in order to target specific cells and tissues to release the given medicine while avoiding immune system destruction ^1-3.

Nanoparticles are particulate dispersions or minute solid particles that range in size from 10-1000nm. The drug molecules are dissolved, entrapped, encapsulated, or linked to a nanoparticle matrix. Depending on the preparation method NPs, nanospheres, or nanocapsules are obtained. Nanocapsules are systems in which the drugs are confined to a cavity surrounded by a unique polymer membrane ^3-4. At the same time, nanospheres are matrix systems in which the drugs are physically and uniformly dispersed. In recent years, biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles, particularly those coated with a hydrophilic polymer such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) known as long-circulating particles, have been used as potential drug delivery system because of their ability to circulate for a prolonged period, targeting a specific organ, serving as a carrier of DNA in gene therapy, and delivering proteins, peptides, and genes ^5-7.

Controlled drug delivery systems can overcome many of the disadvantages that conventional drug delivery systems face. For instance, chemotherapeutic agents used in cancer treatment are traditionally distributed non-specifically, harming both healthy cells and cancer cells, resulting in low effectiveness and high toxicities⁸. Controlled DDSs would be excellent carriers for chemotherapeutic agents, guiding the chemotherapeutic agents to the tumor site thus increasing the drug concentration in cancer cells and averting toxicity in normal cells ^9-10.

The advancement of nanotechnology has made nanoparticles a promising candidate for controlled drug delivery systems. When used as a DDS, NPs can improve the efficacy of the drug by increasing the drug half-life, improving the solubility for some hydrophobic drugs, and releasing the drug in a controlled or sustained fashion.  Liposomes were the first discovered nanoparticles of DDS and were used as carriers for drugs and proteins in the 1960s. Since then, more and more materials have been fabricated into nanoparticles and used as DDS ^11-12. This review highlights the types of nanoparticles that can be used for cancer therapy, their therapeutic applications, current delivery strategies for cancer treatment, and the prospects and challenges of NPs in recent basic and clinical research were also discussed. Above all, NPs provide an inspiring therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment.

 

 

Figure 1: Advantages offered by targeted drug delivery compared with conventional dosage forms

 

The NPs used in medical treatment usually have specific sizes, shapes, and surface features as these three factors significantly impact the effectiveness of the nano-drug delivery process and, in turn, dictate therapeutic success ¹³. NPs with a diameter range of 10 to 100 nm are commonly deemed appropriate for cancer therapy due to their capacity to efficiently transport medications and provide an increased permeability and retention (EPR) effect (Fig. 1). Larger particles over 100 nm are likely to be removed from circulation by phagocytes, while smaller particles (less than 1-2 nm) can readily leak from the normal vasculature to injure normal cells and can be quickly filtered by kidneys (less than 10 nm in diameter). Moreover, the surface characteristics of NPs can influence their bioavailability and half-life. NPs enhance the solubility, stability, and bioavailability (BA) of anticancer drugs, ensuring controlled and sustained drug release at the tumor site ^14-15. The various NP-based formulations, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and metallic NPs, have been developed to improve chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunotherapy. Additionally, smart and stimuli-responsive NPs can release drugs in response to tumor-specific conditions such as pH, temperature, or enzymatic activity ¹⁶. NPs are also widely used in photothermal and photodynamic therapies, where they enable selective tumor destruction through heat generation or reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Furthermore, theranostic NPs combine diagnostic and therapeutic functions, enabling real-time imaging and personalized treatment monitoring. The continuous advancements in nanomedicine are paving the way for more effective, safe, and patient-specific cancer therapies ^17-19.

A targeted drug delivery system is a system that delivers medication to its intended location while avoiding needless contact with other healthy tissue to minimize adverse effects. Unwanted effects on healthy cells result from non-targeted drug administration, including chemotherapeutic drugs used for cancer treatment ^20-21. Drug effects are more consistent, and dosage is reduced when they are delivered with targeting. The three-step technique for targeted drug release is: (i) Nanocarriers bind to the receptors of targeted cells through multivalent receptor-ligand interactions, (ii) Enter cells through endocytosis (iii), and release drugs during the last stage. Targeted drug delivery can take place in cytosol and cell membranes by interacting with lipid membranes ^22-23.

The targeted drug delivery system is designed to enhance therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic toxicity by directing drugs specifically to diseased cells, such as cancerous tissues ^24-25. This mechanism relies on two major approaches: passive targeting and active targeting with their detail discussed as below:

1. Passive Targeting: This mechanism utilizes the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, a phenomenon in which nanoparticles (NPs) accumulate in tumor tissues due to leaky vasculature and poor lymphatic drainage. This allows drug-loaded NPs to remain in the tumor microenvironment for an extended period, enhancing treatment effectiveness.
2. Active Targeting: In this strategy, nanoparticles are functionalized with specific ligands, such as antibodies, peptides, aptamers, or folic acid, which bind to overexpressed receptors on cancer cells. This receptor-mediated endocytosis facilitates precise drug internalization into cancer cells, improving drug concentration at the target site and reducing off-target effects.
3. Stimuli-Responsive Targeting: Advanced drug delivery systems are designed to release drugs in response to specific tumor micro-environmental triggers, such as pH, temperature, redox potential, or enzyme activity. For example, pH-sensitive nanoparticles release their payload in the acidic tumor environment, ensuring site-specific drug activation.
4. Nanocarrier-Based Delivery: Various nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and metallic nanoparticles, are employed to protect drugs from degradation, enhance bioavailability, and ensure controlled and sustained drug release ^26-27.

By integrating these mechanisms, targeted drug delivery systems significantly improve therapeutic precision, reduce drug resistance, and enhance patient outcomes in diseases like cancer.

The main objective of designing nanocarriers is to regulate the surface area, surface properties, and particle size for drug delivery systems so that the NPs containing an appropriate amount of drugs can show the desired pharmacological activity by releasing active ingredients to specific sites of action ^28-29. A few potential advantages of nanocarriers are the ability to overcome several ingrained obstacles in vivo, the improvement of a drug's pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties without altering its molecular structure, and the targeted and non-targeted drug delivery in the nucleus, cytosol, etc. ³⁰.

 

 

Figure 2: NPs used in the treatment of several types of cancer

 

 

1) Lipid-Based Nanoparticles

Lipid-based nanoparticles are made up of an internal water chamber surrounded by at least one lipid bilayer. The liposomes having lipid bilayers can combine with other bilayers, promoting the release of their contents, and making them useful applications for drug delivery (Fig. 2). Lipid-based NPs are regarded as one of the important drug delivery systems because of their many benefits including simple formulation, self-assembly, biocompatibility, high bioavailability and improved physiochemical characteristics to regulate their biological uses. Liposomes, SLNs, NLCs, and lipid polymer hybrid NPs are the four most prevalent forms of lipid-based nanoparticles used in drug delivery ^31-32. 

a) Liposomes

Liposomes consist of a spherical shape comprising an amphipathic phospholipid bilayer and an inner aqueous core. Their core-shell nanostructure allows them to encapsulate both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules effectively (Fig. 3). The lipophilic bilayers of the shell typically encapsulate hydrophobic drugs, while hydrophilic drugs generally are entrapped in the aqueous phase of the core ³³. Liposomes can transport large molecules like various nucleic acids, proteins, and imaging agents, making them a versatile method for delivering drugs ^34-35.

 

Figure 3: Schematic representation of liposome and their structure with composition ³⁶

 

 

Liposomes are recognized as a versatile system for delivering drugs, offering benefits such as quick absorption, enhanced drug availability in the body, decreased toxicity, and protection against oxidation and hydrolysis. However their limited bio stability, the potential for drug release, and short half-lives make them unsuitable for clinical use ³⁷. Many strategies have been developed to address these issues, such as targeted liposomes with surface-attached ligands and "stealth" liposomes encased in biocompatible polymers like PEG to prevent immune response triggering ³⁸.

b) SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES (SLNPs)

The size of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) ranges from 50-1000 nm and are prepared by melting solid lipids in water and adding an emulsifier to create a stable solution. Heat-sensitive drugs, have poor physicochemical compatibility, and low pharmacokinetic profile can be transported using solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). SLNPs consist of fully crystallized lipid components with a highly ordered crystalline structure containing drugs and emulsifiers ^39-40. SLNs provide many advantages, such as improved NPs stability, efficient drug protection, controlled release, and customizable properties through lipid component adjustments ⁴¹. SLNs also offer multiple technological advantages, which include protecting drugs from chemicals, increased physical stability, easy scalability of production, simplified sterilization processes, and the capability to co-deliver two active agents. The significant results have been obtained when solid lipid nanoparticles were utilized as drug delivery systems for chemotherapeutic drugs, especially in the therapy of colorectal cancer and malignant melanoma ^42-44. These nano-systems not only exhibit antitumor effects but also can prevent human umbilical vein endothelial cells from adhering to cancer cell lines originating from human colon-rectum, breast, prostate cancers, and melanoma ^45-46.

 

c) Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLC)

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) are produced from a blend of liquid and solid lipids, however at body temperature, the particles are solid. When combined, lipids may produce a variety of shaped solid matrices, including lipid drug conjugate NPs (LDC) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), which are designed to increase drug loading capacity ^47-48. The NLC represents a promising method for delivering drugs, offering better drug retention and increased drug loading capability. If the lipid matrix is made up of similar molecules, these structural characteristics can lead to drug expulsion during storage, which can result in an inadequate loading capacity ⁴⁹. However, it can also allow for higher drug loading capacities and improved drug release kinetics when compared to SLNs ⁵⁰.

d) Lipid Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles 

Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are core-shell nanostructures that are composed of at least two types of materials to achieve multifunction or to address the limitations of single-component nanomaterials, combining the advantages of the two individual components ^51-52. The hybrid structural design offers the advantages of simultaneous loading of hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs in the same nanoparticle. Moreover, the surface functionality can be tuned with various ligands such as peptides and monoclonal antibodies. It consists of a lipid core enveloped by polymeric layer, Hybrid lipid-polymeric NPs offer excellent stability, prolonged release, and strong biocompatibility due to the combination of lipid and polymer characteristics ⁵³. In most cases drugs are cytotoxic so targeted delivery is the only strategy to fight against cancer (Fig. 4). The scope of LPHNPs application has extended beyond a single DDs for anticancer therapy and confirmed that it is a better delivery route and has a good cellular delivery efficacy for cancer treatment in which multiple therapeutic agents (both hydrophilic and hydrophobic) can be administered simultaneously ^54-55.

 

 

Figure 4: Schematic representation of lipid-based nanoparticles and their types ⁵⁶

 

 

2) Polymeric Nanoparticles

Polymeric NPs are colloidal solid particles with a size range of (10-1000 nm) made from natural and synthetic polymers, have received the majority of attention due to their stability and ease of surface modification. The polymer characteristics and surface chemistry can be adjusted to create custom DDS that control drug release and target specific diseases ^57-58. The different types of polymeric NPs are nanocapsules, which consist of cavities surrounded by polymer membranes, and nanospheres that are solid matrix systems.

3) Inorganic Nanoparticles

Inorganic nanoparticles have particular properties like SPR (surface plasmon resonance) that organic nanoparticles do not possess. The DDS has various advantages, including excellent biocompatibility, high stability, and surface functionalization ⁵⁹. Animal cell experiments have shown that the metal cores of NPs exhibit minimum cytotoxicity and remain stable during intake and targeting of organs, with minimal interactions with the surroundings. However, significant efforts are required to increase the solubility and decrease the toxicity of these materials, particularly when heavy metals are involved in the preparation system ^60-61. 

1. Quantum Dot: The quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals ranging from 2 to 10 nm, comprising inorganic core shell nanocrystals with unique electronic, optical and structural properties and aqueous organic coated shell. The core nanocrystals of QDs determine the colour emitted, while the external aqueous layer can be used for attachment of biomolecules like peptides, protein, or DNA. It has a unique photophysical properties that allow for visualization of tumors while the drug is being delivered at the targeted site ^62-63.
2.  Gold Nanoparticles: In gold NPs (AuNPs) drugs can be conjugated to surfaces via ionic or covalent bonding and they can deliver them and control their release through biological stimuli or light activation. Gold NPs are viewed as having significant promise in targeted drug delivery diagnosis due to their large specific surface area, surface plasmon resonance, stable properties, surface chemistry, and ability to be multi-functionalized ^64-65. 
3. Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Iron oxide NPs exhibit core dimensions ranging from 10 to 100 nm. Their distinctive characteristics, including small size, elevated surface-to-volume ratio, and magnetic properties, make them suitable for targeted drug delivery systems. To enhance their biocompatibility and stability in physiological environments, the surfaces of these magnetic NPs are typically coated with materials like polysaccharides or smaller carbohydrates, providing the final product with a robust core ⁶⁶. A key use of these nanoparticles is as contrast agents in MRI scans, which facilitate precise tumor localization, staging, and assessment of treatment responses.

Nanocarriers have revolutionized cancer therapy by enabling precise drug delivery, improving BA, and reducing systemic toxicity. These nanocarriers are broadly classified into lipid-based, polymeric, inorganic, and hybrid systems. Lipid-based nanocarriers, such as liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), provide biocompatibility and controlled drug release, making them widely used for chemotherapy. Polymeric NPs, including dendrimers and micelles, offer high drug-loading capacity, enhanced stability, and stimuli-responsive properties, enabling targeted therapy. Inorganic nanocarriers, such as gold NPs, quantum dots, and iron oxide NPs, are employed for theranostics, combining imaging and therapy. Hybrid nanocarriers integrate organic and inorganic materials to enhance multi-functionality, allowing for combination therapies like chemo-photothermal or immunotherapy ^65-67. 

Traditional therapies have several drawbacks regarding their effectiveness and adverse effects due to uneven distribution and toxic effects. Thus, careful dosage is necessary to eradicate cancer cells with minimal toxicity effectively. For the drug to reach its target, it must navigate several barriers as the process of drug metabolism is highly complicated [68]. Under physiological conditions, the drug needs to pass through the tumor microenvironment (TME), reticulo endothelial system (RES), and blood-brain barrier (BBB), and undergo kidney filtration. The RES, or macrophage system, comprises blood monocytes, macrophages, and additional immune cells. The mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) in the liver, spleen, or lungs interacts with the drugs and activates macrophages or leukocytes that quickly eliminate the drug ^69-70.

Nanoparticles (NPs) have revolutionized cancer therapy by enabling targeted, controlled, and efficient drug delivery while minimizing systemic toxicity. Their versatility allows for various therapeutic applications, enhancing treatment efficacy and overcoming challenges associated with conventional chemotherapy ⁷¹.

1. Targeted Drug Delivery: NPs can be functionalized with ligands (such as antibodies, peptides, or aptamers) that recognize and bind to specific cancer cell receptors, ensuring precise drug delivery while sparing healthy tissues. This targeted approach enhances therapeutic efficacy and reduces adverse effects.
2. Chemotherapy Enhancement: NPs improve the solubility, stability, and BA of chemotherapeutic agents, allowing for controlled and sustained drug release. Nano-formulations such as liposomes and polymeric NPs encapsulating drugs like doxorubicin and paclitaxel have demonstrated increased tumor accumulation and reduced systemic toxicity.
3. Gene and RNA-Based Therapy: NPs serve as effective carriers for gene-editing tools (e.g., CRISPR/Cas9), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA) to target cancer-related genes. This approach offers precise genetic intervention, reducing tumor growth and resistance to chemotherapy ^72-73.
4. Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapy (PTT/PDT): Metallic and hybrid NPs, such as gold and silica-based nanomaterials, can absorb near-infrared (NIR) light, generating localized heat to destroy tumor cells (PTT) or activating photosensitizers for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production to induce cell death (PDT).
5. Immunotherapy and Vaccine Delivery:   NPs play a crucial role in cancer immunotherapy by delivering immune-modulating agents, enhancing antigen presentation, and stimulating the body's immune response. Lipid-based NPs have been explored for cancer vaccine formulations, boosting anti-tumor immunity.
6. Overcoming Multidrug Resistance (MDR): NP-based drug delivery systems help bypass drug efflux mechanisms in resistant cancer cells, ensuring sustained intracellular drug accumulation. Surface-modified NPs can inhibit drug transporters, enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents.
7. Combination Therapy Platform: Multifunctional NPs enable the co-delivery of multiple therapeutic agents, such as chemotherapy combined with immunotherapy or photothermal therapy, leading to synergistic effects and improved treatment outcomes ^74-75.
8. Tumor Imaging and Theranostics: NPs incorporating contrast agents (such as quantum dots, iron oxide, or gold NPs) provide real-time tumor imaging for early diagnosis and therapy monitoring. Theranostic NPs combine diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities, allowing personalized treatment strategies.

The integration of nanotechnology in cancer therapy continues to evolve, with promising advancements in personalized medicine, smart drug delivery, and combination therapies, paving the way for more effective and less toxic cancer treatments. The drug delivery nanoparticles can be used in cancer therapy to achieve controlled drug release and disease-specific localization by tuning the various characteristics and surface chemistry ^75-77. Because of their small size, nanoparticles can extravasate through the endothelium in inflammatory sites, epithelium (e.g., intestinal tract and liver), tumors, or microcapillaries. 

NPs have emerged as powerful tools across various scientific and industrial fields due to their unique physicochemical properties, such as high surface area, tunable size, and enhanced reactivity. In medicine, NPs play a crucial role in drug delivery, targeted cancer therapy, gene therapy, and imaging, improving treatment efficacy while minimizing side effects. In diagnostics, quantum dots and magnetic NPs enable precise disease detection and bioimaging ⁷⁸. NPs aid in wastewater treatment, pollutant removal, and air purification due to their superior adsorption and catalytic properties. 

• Tumor targeting using the nanoparticulate delivery system: The reasoning behind utilizing nanoparticles for targeting tumors relies on two main points: (1) NPs can deliver a concentrated drug dose directly to tumor locations due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect associated with active nanoparticles. (2) By confining drug distribution to target organs, NPs can minimize the exposure of healthy tissues to the drug. An experiment involving mice showed that those treated with doxorubicin encapsulated in poly (isohexylcynoacrylate) nanospheres had a greater concentration of doxorubicin in the liver, spleen, and lungs compared to mice that received free doxorubicin.
• Nanoparticles for gene delivery: Polynucleotide vaccines work by delivering genes encoding relevant antigens to host cells where they are expressed. The antigenic protein is produced within the vicinity of professional antigen-presenting cells to initiate an immune response. Such vaccines produce both humoral and cell-mediated immunity because intracellular protein production, as opposed to extracellular deposition, stimulates both aspects of the immune system.
• Nanoparticle for drug delivery into the brain: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a biological barrier that is challenging for conventional therapeutics to treat central nervous system (CNS) diseases. The BBB is a highly selective and semipermeable endothelial cell line that protects the brain from being invaded by foreign pathogens and unwanted substances in circulation. The blood-brain barrier is comprised of endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, and a basal membrane. Molecules can cross the BBB by diffusion mechanisms as long as the molecules are lipophilic, not ionizable at physiological pH, and have a size below 400 kD. Due to their small size and design, nanoparticles can penetrate through tight junctions in the BBB and protect the drug from enzymatic degradation ^76-80.

The food and agriculture sector benefits from NPs for food packaging, antimicrobial coatings, and nano-fertilizers, improving crop yield and shelf life. Additionally, NPs have revolutionized electronics, cosmetics, and textiles by enhancing conductivity, UV protection, and durability. Their widespread applications continue to expand, driving innovation in multiple disciplines ⁸⁰.

The NPs is a promising drug delivery system designed to improve the pharmacological and therapeutic properties of conventional drug. The remarkable advancements in nanoparticles (NPs)-based drug delivery systems for cancer therapy, several challenges and limitations hinder their widespread clinical application:

1. Stability and Scalability: Many NPs face stability issues, aggregation, and degradation during storage and circulation. Large-scale, cost-effective production with reproducible quality remains a significant hurdle.
2. Toxicity and Biocompatibility: While NPs aim for targeted delivery, unintended toxicity and long-term biocompatibility concerns persist, necessitating thorough preclinical and clinical evaluations.
3. Targeting Efficiency: Achieving precise tumor targeting remains challenging due to biological barriers like the reticuloendothelial system (RES) clearance, off-target distribution, and heterogeneity of tumors.
4. Regulatory and Approval Complexities: The translation of NP-based therapeutics from bench to bedside is slow due to stringent regulatory requirements, lack of standardized evaluation criteria, and extensive safety testing.
5. Cost and Manufacturing Issues: The high cost of NP synthesis, purification, and functionalization, along with complex manufacturing techniques, limits their affordability and scalability.
6. Drug Loading and Release Control: The some NPs struggle with low drug-loading capacity and uncontrolled release, affecting therapeutic efficiency and dosing precision.
7. Immunogenicity and Clearance: NPs can trigger immune responses, leading to rapid clearance from the body, which reduces their circulation time and therapeutic impact ^81-82.

These limitations through innovative formulations, advanced nanomaterial engineering, and interdisciplinary collaborations will be crucial for the successful clinical translation of NPs in cancer therapy ⁸³. The future of NPs-based drug delivery systems in cancer therapy is highly promising, with ongoing advancements aimed at overcoming current challenges and enhancing therapeutic efficacy discussed as below:

1. Personalized and Precision Nanomedicine: The future of cancer therapy lies in personalized and precision nanomedicine, where nanoparticles (NPs) are tailored based on an individual’s genetic and proteomic profile. The integration of genomics and proteomics will allow the identification of specific biomarkers that can be targeted using engineered NPs, enhancing therapeutic efficiency. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms will play a crucial role in optimizing NP formulations, predicting patient responses, and improving drug delivery strategies. This approach will help minimize adverse effects, improve drug BA, and maximize treatment success, ultimately transforming cancer therapy into a more patient-specific and effective approach.
2. Smart and Stimuli-Responsive NPs: Future advancements in nanotechnology will focus on the development of smart and stimuli-responsive NPs that can react to specific tumor micro-environmental conditions. These NPs will be designed to release drugs in response to factors such as pH changes, enzymatic activity, or temperature variations within the tumor site. This targeted drug release mechanism enhances therapeutic efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity and off-target effects. By integrating stimuli-responsive polymers, nanocarriers will provide precise spatiotemporal control over drug delivery, improving treatment outcomes and minimizing adverse reactions in cancer patients ^84-85.
3. Hybrid and Multifunctional Nanocarriers: The development of hybrid and multifunctional nanocarriers will revolutionize cancer therapy by combining the advantages of different nanomaterials. For instance, hybrid NPs incorporating liposomes with polymeric or metallic nanoparticles can offer enhanced drug-loading capacity, controlled release, and increased stability in physiological conditions. These multifunctional platforms can also enable combination therapies, such as chemo-photothermal therapy or immunotherapy, for improved therapeutic effects. Integrating various functional elements into a single nanocarrier, hybrid NPs can simultaneously target tumors, deliver drugs efficiently, and provide real-time imaging capabilities, paving the way for next-generation cancer treatment strategies.
4. Overcoming Biological Barriers: One of the critical challenges in NP-based drug delivery is overcoming biological barriers that limit drug accumulation at tumor sites. To address this, researchers are developing stealth NPs with biomimetic coatings such as cell membranes or polyethylene glycol (PEGylation) to evade immune detection and prolong systemic circulation. These engineered NPs can efficiently penetrate solid tumors by utilizing active targeting ligands or size-controlled transport mechanisms. Improving circulation time, reducing rapid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system (RES), and enhancing tumor selectivity, stealth NPs will significantly improve the efficacy of nanoparticle-based cancer therapies, leading to better clinical outcomes ^86-87.

CONCLUSION 

Nanoparticles (NPs)-based drug delivery systems have emerged as a revolutionary approach in cancer therapy, offering targeted, controlled, and efficient drug delivery with minimized systemic toxicity. These nanoscale carriers enhance drug solubility, prolong circulation time, and improve bioavailability, leading to better therapeutic outcomes. The various nano-platforms, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and metallic nanoparticles, have shown remarkable potential in overcoming multidrug resistance and enhancing tumor penetration. Despite significant progress, challenges such as large-scale production, stability, and regulatory approvals remain hurdles for clinical translation. Future advancements in nanomedicine, integrating personalized therapy, artificial intelligence, and smart nanocarriers, hold immense promise for optimizing cancer treatment and improving patient outcomes.

 

 

List Of Abbreviations

NPs: Nanoparticles; BA: Bioavailability; BBB: blood-brain barrier; CNS: Central Nervous System; AI: Artificial Intelligence; RES: Reticuloendothelial System; DDS: Drug delivery system.

Acknowledgement: The corresponding author would like to special thanks to Mr. Rahul Pal (Assistant Professor, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India) for his valuable support and efforts of the completion of this review article manuscript.

Ethical Approval: Not applicable.

Consent for Publication: Not applicable.

Human and Animal Ethical Right: Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest, and no funding was required to conduct these review data.

Availability of Data and Materials: The data supporting this study’s findings will be available in the cited references.

Funding: The research received no external funding. 

Author Contribution: All authors have equal contribution in the preparation of manuscript and compilation.

REFERENCES

1. Afzal O, Altamimi AS, Nadeem MS, Alzarea SI, Almalki WH, Tariq A, Mubeen B, Murtaza BN, Iftikhar S, Riaz N, Kazmi I. Nanoparticles in drug delivery: From history to therapeutic applications. Nanomaterials, 2022; 12(24):4494. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12244494 PMid:36558344 PMCid:PMC9781272

2. Cheng X, Xie Q, Sun Y. Advances in nanomaterial-based targeted drug delivery systems. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, 2023; 11:1177151. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.1177151 PMid:37122851 PMCid:PMC10133513

3. Dang Y, Guan J. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. Smart materials in medicine, 2020; 1:10-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smaim.2020.04.001 PMid:34553138 PMCid:PMC8455119

4. Gavas S, Quazi S, Karpiński TM. Nanoparticles for cancer therapy: current progress and challenges. Nanoscale research letters, 2021; 16(1):173. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-021-03628-6 PMid:34866166 PMCid:PMC8645667

5. Hong S, Choi DW, Kim HN, Park CG, Lee W, Park HH. Protein-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems. Pharmaceutics, 2020; 12(7):604. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics12070604 PMid:32610448 PMCid:PMC7407889

6. Lv Y, Li W, Liao W, Jiang H, Liu Y, Cao J, Lu W, Feng Y. Nano-drug delivery systems based on natural products. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 2024; 541-69. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S443692 PMid:38260243 PMCid:PMC10802180

7. Patra JK, Das G, Fraceto LF, Campos EV, Rodriguez-Torres MD, Acosta-Torres LS, Diaz-Torres LA, Grillo R, Swamy MK, Sharma S, Habtemariam S. Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects. Journal of nanobiotechnology, 2018; 16:1-33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-018-0392-8 PMid:30231877 PMCid:PMC6145203

8. Sell M, Lopes AR, Escudeiro M, Esteves B, Monteiro AR, Trindade T, Cruz-Lopes L. Application of nanoparticles in cancer treatment: a concise review. Nanomaterials, 2023; 13(21):2887. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13212887 PMid:37947732 PMCid:PMC10650201

9. Sultana A, Zare M, Thomas V, Kumar TS, Ramakrishna S. Nano-based drug delivery systems: Conventional drug delivery routes, recent developments and future prospects. Medicine in Drug Discovery, 2022; 15:100134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medidd.2022.100134

10. Sun L, Liu H, Ye Y, Lei Y, Islam R, Tan S, Tong R, Miao YB, Cai L. Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy. Signal transduction and targeted therapy, 2023; 8(1):418. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01642-x PMid:37919282 PMCid:PMC10622502

11. Rahul Pal, Prachi Pandey, Himmat Singh Chawra, Zuber Khan, Nano Drug Delivery Carriers (Nanocarriers): A Promising Targeted Strategy in Tuberculosis and Pain Treatment, Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology; Volume 13, Issue, Year 2025, e22117385367493. https://doi.org/10.2174/0122117385367493250224103839 PMid:40059418

12. Yao Y, Zhou Y, Liu L, Xu Y, Chen Q, Wang Y, Wu S, Deng Y, Zhang J, Shao A. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery in cancer therapy and its role in overcoming drug resistance. Frontiers in molecular biosciences, 2020; 7:193. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2020.00193 PMid:32974385 PMCid:PMC7468194

13. Yusuf A, Almotairy AR, Henidi H, Alshehri OY, Aldughaim MS. Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems: a review of the implication of nanoparticles' physicochemical properties on responses in biological systems. Polymers, 2023; 15(7):1596. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15071596 PMid:37050210 PMCid:PMC10096782

14. Cai, R. T. (2023). Role of Nanoparticles in the Drug Delivery Systems. https://doi.org/10.4172/DD.7.1.004 

15. Cotta MA. Quantum dots and their applications: what lies ahead?. ACS applied nano materials, 2020; 3(6):4920-4. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.0c01386

16. Duan L, Li X, Ji R, Hao Z, Kong M, Wen X, Guan F, Ma S. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems: an inspiring therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases. Polymers, 2023; 15(9):2196. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092196 PMid:37177342 PMCid:PMC10181407

17. Gavas S, Quazi S, Karpiński TM. Nanoparticles for cancer therapy: current progress and challenges. Nanoscale research letters, 2021; 16(1):173. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-021-03628-6 PMid:34866166 PMCid:PMC8645667

18. Hami Z. A brief review on advantages of nano-based drug delivery systems. Annals of Military and Health Sciences Research, 2021; 19(1). https://doi.org/10.5812/amh.112274

19. Pal R, Pandey P, Nogai L, Anand A, Suthar P, SahdevKeskar M, Kumar V. The future perspectives and novel approach on gastro retentive drug delivery system (GRDDS) with currrent state. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 2023; 30(17):594-613. https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v30i17.2852

20. Mukherjee A, Waters AK, Kalyan P, Achrol AS, Kesari S, Yenugonda VM. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles as a next-generation drug delivery platform: state of the art, emerging technologies, and perspectives. International journal of nanomedicine, 2019; 1937-52. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S198353 PMid:30936695 PMCid:PMC6430183

21. Singh S, Pandey VK, Tewari RP, Agarwal V. Nanoparticle based drug delivery system: advantages and applications. Indian J Sci Technol, 2011; 4(3):177-180. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2011/v4i3.16

22. Singh R, Lillard Jr JW. Nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery. Experimental and molecular pathology, 2009; 86(3):215-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2008.12.004 PMid:19186176 PMCid:PMC3249419

23. Singh R, Lillard Jr JW. Nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery. Experimental and molecular pathology, 2009; 86(3):215-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2008.12.004 PMid:19186176 PMCid:PMC3249419

24. Yang J, Jia C, Yang J. Designing nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for precision medicine. International journal of medical sciences, 2021; 18(13):2943. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.60874 PMid:34220321 PMCid:PMC8241788

25. Kumar V. The Advanced Approach in The Development of Targeted Drug Delivery (TDD) With Their Bio-Medical Applications: A Descriptive Review. International Neurourology Journal, 2023; 27(4).

26. Carreiró F, Oliveira AM, Neves A, Pires B, Nagasamy Venkatesh D, Durazzo A, Lucarini M, Eder P, Silva AM, Santini A, Souto EB. Polymeric nanoparticles: Production, characterization, toxicology and ecotoxicology. Molecules, 2020; 25(3731). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163731 PMid:32824172 PMCid:PMC7464532

27. Girdhar V, Patil S, Banerjee S, Singhvi G. Nanocarriers for drug delivery: mini review. Current Nanomedicine (Formerly: Recent Patents on Nanomedicine), 2018; 8(2):88-99. https://doi.org/10.2174/2468187308666180501092519

28. Jafari SM. An overview of nanoencapsulation techniques and their classification. Nanoencapsulation technologies for the food and nutraceutical industries, 2017; 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809436-5.00001-X

29. Graván P, Aguilera-Garrido A, Marchal JA, Navarro-Marchal SA, Galisteo-González F. Lipid-core nanoparticles: Classification, preparation methods, routes of administration and recent advances in cancer treatment. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2023; 314:102871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2023.102871 PMid:36958181

30. Alshawwa SZ, Kassem AA, Farid RM, Mostafa SK, Labib GS. Nanocarrier drug delivery systems: characterization, limitations, future perspectives and implementation of artificial intelligence. Pharmaceutics, 2022; 14(4):883. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14040883 PMid:35456717 PMCid:PMC9026217

31. Patidar A, Thakur DS, Kumar P, Verma J. A review on novel lipid based nanocarriers. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, 2010; 2(4):30-35.

32. Mishra DK, Shandilya R, Mishra PK. Lipid based nanocarriers: a translational perspective. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine, 2018; 14(7):2023-2050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2018.05.021 PMid:29944981

33. Has C, Sunthar P. A comprehensive review on recent preparation techniques of liposomes. Journal of liposome research, 2020; 30(4):336-365. https://doi.org/10.1080/08982104.2019.1668010 PMid:31558079

34. Pal R, Pandey P, Rizwan M, Koli M, Thakur SK, Malakar RK, Gupta H, Khadam VK, Chawra HS. the utilization of response surface methodology (RSM) in the optimization of diclofenac sodium (DS) liposomes formulate through the thin film hydration (TFH) technique with involving computational method. Journal of Advances in Medicine and Medical Research, 2023; 35(22):287-300. https://doi.org/10.9734/jammr/2023/v35i225268

35. Jesorka A, Orwar O. Liposomes: technologies and analytical applications. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem., 2008; 1(1):801-832. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anchem.1.031207.112747 PMid:20636098

36. Shailesh S, Neelam S, Sandeep K, Gupta GD. Liposomes: a review. Journal of pharmacy research, 2009; 2(7):1163-1167.

37. Nsairat H, Khater D, Sayed U, Odeh F, Al Bawab A, Alshaer W. Liposomes: Structure, composition, types, and clinical applications. Heliyon, 2022; 8(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09394 PMid:35600452 PMCid:PMC9118483

38. Pal R, Pandey P, Maurya VK, Saxena A, Rizwan M, Koli M, Shakya S, Pinki K. Optimization and formulation of doxorubicin (DOX) loaded liposome well-used in chemotherapy involving quality by design (QbD): a transitory research. European Chemical Bulletin, 2023; 12:4491-4510. https://doi.org/10.22271/phyto.2023.v12.i6b.14779

39. Lingayat VJ, Zarekar NS, Shendge RS. Solid lipid nanoparticles: a review. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. Res, 2017; 4(2):67-72.

40. Pal R, Pandey P, Anand A, Saxena A, Thakur SK, Malakar RK, Kumar V. The Pharmaceutical Polymer's; A current status in drug delivery: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences, 2023; 10(1):3682-92.

41. Yadav N, Khatak S, Sara US. Solid lipid nanoparticles-a review. Int. J. Appl. Pharm, 2013; 5(2):8-18.

42. Sarangi MK, Padhi S. Solid lipid nanoparticles-a review. Drugs, 2016; 5(7).

43. Weber S, Zimmer A, Pardeike J. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for pulmonary application: a review of the state of the art. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 2014; 86(1):7-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2013.08.013 PMid:24007657

44. Paliwal R, Paliwal SR, Kenwat R, Kurmi BD, Sahu MK. Solid lipid nanoparticles: A review on recent perspectives and patents. Expert opinion on therapeutic patents, 2020; 30(3):179-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/13543776.2020.1720649 PMid:32003260

45. Garud A, Singh D, Garud N. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN): method, characterization and applications. International Current Pharmaceutical Journal, 2012; 1(11):384-393. https://doi.org/10.3329/icpj.v1i11.12065

46. Khairnar SV, Pagare P, Thakre A, Nambiar AR, Junnuthula V, Abraham MC, Kolimi P, Nyavanandi D, Dyawanapelly S. Review on the scale-up methods for the preparation of solid lipid nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics, 2022; 14(9):1886. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14091886 PMid:36145632 PMCid:PMC9503303

47. Rahul Pal, Prachi Pandey, Himmat Singh Chawra, Ravindra Pal Singh, Niosomal as Potential Vesicular Drug Nano-carriers for the Treatment of Tuberculosis (TB), Nanoscience & Nanotechnology-Asia; Volume 15, Issue 1, Year 2025, e22106812323829. https://doi.org/10.2174/0122106812323829240919050438

48. Tamjidi F, Shahedi M, Varshosaz J, Nasirpour A. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC): A potential delivery system for bioactive food molecules. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 2013; 19:29-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2013.03.002

49. Müller RH, Petersen RD, Hommoss A, Pardeike J. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) in cosmetic dermal products. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 2007; 59(6):522-530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2007.04.012 PMid:17602783

50. Garcês A, Amaral MH, Lobo JS, Silva AC. Formulations based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for cutaneous use: A review. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2018; 112:159-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2017.11.023 PMid:29183800

51. Dave V, Tak K, Sohgaura A, Gupta A, Sadhu V, Reddy KR. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles: Synthesis strategies and biomedical applications. Journal of microbiological methods, 2019; 160:130-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2019.03.017 PMid:30898602

52. Mandal B, Bhattacharjee H, Mittal N, Sah H, Balabathula P, Thoma LA, Wood GC. Core-shell-type lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles as a drug delivery platform. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine, 2013; 9(4):474-941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2012.11.010 PMid:23261500

53. Mukherjee A, Waters AK, Kalyan P, Achrol AS, Kesari S, Yenugonda VM. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles as a next-generation drug delivery platform: state of the art, emerging technologies, and perspectives. International journal of nanomedicine, 2019; 1937-1952. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S198353 PMid:30936695 PMCid:PMC6430183

54. Cheow WS, Hadinoto K. Factors affecting drug encapsulation and stability of lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles. Colloids and surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 2011; 85(2):214-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.02.033 PMid:21439797

55. Persano F, Gigli G, Leporatti S. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles in cancer therapy: Current overview and future directions. Nano Express, 2021; 2(1):012006. https://doi.org/10.1088/2632-959X/abeb4b

56. Naziris N, Demetzos C. Lipid nanoparticles as platforms for theranostic purposes: recent advances in the field. Journal of Nanotheranostics, 2022; 3(2):86-101. https://doi.org/10.3390/jnt3020006

57. Mallakpour S, Behranvand VJ. Polymeric nanoparticles: Recent development in synthesis and application. Express Polymer Letters, 2016; 10(11):895. https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2016.84

58. Banik BL, Fattahi P, Brown JL. Polymeric nanoparticles: the future of nanomedicine. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology, 2016; 8(2):271-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1364 PMid:26314803

59. Pal R, Pandey P, Rai B, Koli M, Chakrabarti M, Thakur P, Rizwan M, Saxena A. Chitosan: as highly potential biopolymer obtainable in several advance drug delivery systems including biomedical applications. Environmental science, 2023; 3(4).

60. Liu Q, Kim YJ, Im GB, Zhu J, Wu Y, Liu Y, Bhang SH. Inorganic nanoparticles applied as functional therapeutics. Advanced Functional Materials, 2021; 31(12):2008171. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202008171

61. Kim T, Hyeon T. Applications of inorganic nanoparticles as therapeutic agents. Nanotechnology, 2013; 25(1):012001. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/25/1/012001 PMid:24334327

62. Biju V, Itoh T, Anas A, Sujith A, Ishikawa M. Semiconductor quantum dots and metal nanoparticles: syntheses, optical properties, and biological applications. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, 2008; 391:2469-2495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-008-2185-7 PMid:18548237

63. Ghaderi S, Ramesh B, Seifalian AM. Fluorescence nanoparticles "quantum dots" as drug delivery system and their toxicity: a review. Journal of drug targeting, 2011; 19(7):475-486. https://doi.org/10.3109/1061186X.2010.526227 PMid:20964619

64. Tomar A, Garg G. Short review on application of gold nanoparticles. Global Journal of Pharmacology, 2013; 7(1):34-38.

65. Anik MI, Mahmud N, Al Masud A, Hasan M. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in biomedical and clinical applications: A review. Nano Select, 2022; 3(4):792-828. https://doi.org/10.1002/nano.202100255

66. Sangaiya P, Jayaprakash R. A review on iron oxide nanoparticles and their biomedical applications. Journal of Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism, 2018; 31(11):3397-3413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10948-018-4841-2

67. Campos EA, Pinto DV, Oliveira JI, Mattos ED, Dutra RD. Synthesis, characterization and applications of iron oxide nanoparticles-a short review. Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management, 2015; 7(3):267-276. https://doi.org/10.5028/jatm.v7i3.471

68. Aghebati‐Maleki A, Dolati S, Ahmadi M, Baghbanzhadeh A, Asadi M, Fotouhi A, Yousefi M, Aghebati‐Maleki L. Nanoparticles and cancer therapy: Perspectives for application of nanoparticles in the treatment of cancers. Journal of cellular physiology, 2020; 235(3):1962-1972. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.29126 PMid:31441032

69. Sanati M, Afshari AR, Kesharwani P, Sukhorukov VN, Sahebkar A. Recent trends in the application of nanoparticles in cancer therapy: The involvement of oxidative stress. Journal of Controlled Release, 2022; 348:287-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.05.035 PMid:35644289

70. Gavas S, Quazi S, Karpiński TM. Nanoparticles for cancer therapy: current progress and challenges. Nanoscale research letters, 2021; 16(1):173. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-021-03628-6 PMid:34866166 PMCid:PMC8645667

71. Almanghadim HG, Nourollahzadeh Z, Khademi NS, Tezerjani MD, Sehrig FZ, Estelami N, Shirvaliloo M, Sheervalilou R, Sargazi S. Application of nanoparticles in cancer therapy with an emphasis on cell cycle. Cell biology international, 2021; 45(10):1989-1998. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbin.11658 PMid:34233087

72. Pal R, Pandey P, Koli M, Srivastava K, Tiwari V, Gaur AK, Dutta P. The comprehensive review: Exploring future potential of nasopulmonary drug delivery systems for nasal route drug administration. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 2024; 14(3):126-136. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v14i3.6444

73. Huang X, He T, Liang X, Xiang Z, Liu C, Zhou S, Luo R, Bai L, Kou X, Li X, Wu R. Advances and applications of nanoparticles in cancer therapy. MedComm-oncology, 2024; 3(1):e67. https://doi.org/10.1002/mog2.67

74. Zhao R, Xiang J, Wang B, Chen L, Tan S. Recent advances in the development of noble metal NPs for cancer therapy. Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications, 2022; 2022(1):2444516. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2444516 PMid:35126483 PMCid:PMC8816609

75. Siddique S, Chow JC. Gold nanoparticles for drug delivery and cancer therapy. Applied Sciences, 2020; 10(11):3824. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113824

76. Aminolroayaei F, Shahbazi‐Gahrouei D, Shahbazi‐Gahrouei S, Rasouli N. Recent nanotheranostics applications for cancer therapy and diagnosis: A review. IET nanobiotechnology, 2021; 15(3):247-256. https://doi.org/10.1049/nbt2.12021 PMid:34694670 PMCid:PMC8675832

77. Taha RH. Green synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles and their potential applications as therapeutics in cancer therapy; a review. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 2022; 143:109610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2022.109610

78. Aghebati‐Maleki A, Dolati S, Ahmadi M, Baghbanzhadeh A, Asadi M, Fotouhi A, Yousefi M, Aghebati‐Maleki L. Nanoparticles and cancer therapy: Perspectives for application of nanoparticles in the treatment of cancers. Journal of cellular physiology, 2020; 235(3):1962-1972. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.29126 PMid:31441032

79. Bayford R, Rademacher T, Roitt I, Wang SX. Emerging applications of nanotechnology for diagnosis and therapy of disease: a review. Physiological measurement, 2017; 38(8):R183. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aa7182 PMid:28480874

80. Zhao R, Xiang J, Wang B, Chen L, Tan S. Recent advances in the development of noble metal NPs for cancer therapy. Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications, 2022; 2022(1):2444516. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2444516 PMid:35126483 PMCid:PMC8816609

81. Barua S, Mitragotri S. Challenges associated with penetration of nanoparticles across cell and tissue barriers: a review of current status and future prospects. Nano today, 2014; 9(2):223-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2014.04.008 PMid:25132862 PMCid:PMC4129396

82. Abdel-Mageed HM, AbuelEzz NZ, Radwan RA, Mohamed SA. Nanoparticles in nanomedicine: a comprehensive updated review on current status, challenges and emerging opportunities. Journal of microencapsulation, 2021; 38(6):414-436. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652048.2021.1942275 PMid:34157915

83. Mishra S, Keswani C, Abhilash PC, Fraceto LF, Singh HB. Integrated approach of agri-nanotechnology: challenges and future trends. Frontiers in Plant Science, 2017; 8:471. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00471 PMid:28421100 PMCid:PMC5378785

84. Gavas S, Quazi S, Karpiński TM. Nanoparticles for cancer therapy: current progress and challenges. Nanoscale research letters, 2021; 16(1):173. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-021-03628-6 PMid:34866166 PMCid:PMC8645667

85. Schuemann J, Bagley AF, Berbeco R, Bromma K, Butterworth KT, Byrne HL, Chithrani BD, Cho SH, Cook JR, Favaudon V, Gholami YH. Roadmap for metal nanoparticles in radiation therapy: Current status, translational challenges, and future directions. Physics in Medicine & Biology, 2020; 65(21):21RM02. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6560/ab9159 PMid:32380492

86. Ying S, Guan Z, Ofoegbu PC, Clubb P, Rico C, He F, Hong J. Green synthesis of nanoparticles: Current developments and limitations. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 2022; 26:102336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2022.102336

87. Bor G, Mat Azmi ID, Yaghmur A. Nanomedicines for cancer therapy: Current status, challenges and future prospects. Therapeutic delivery, 2019; 10(2):113-132. https://doi.org/10.4155/tde-2018-0062 PMid:30678550